HL 11 The Genomics of Race and Identity

11   The Genomics of Race and Identity
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Fear of Biological Difference
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the history of mixture of West Africans and Europeans in the Americas would make it possible to find risk factors that contribute to health disparities for diseases like prostate cancer, which occurs at about a rate 1.7 times higher in African Americans than in European Americans.
Note:AUSPICI DI CARRIERA

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dietary and environmental differences
Note:FATTORI INUTILI

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I set up a molecular biology laboratory to identify mutations that differed in frequency between West Africans and Europeans.
Note:STRUMENT

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prostate cancer, uterine fibroids, late-stage kidney disease, multiple sclerosis, low white blood cell count, and type 2 diabetes.
Note:ORIGINE GENETICA PARTICOLARE

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I was angrily questioned by an anthropologist in the audience, who believed that by studying “West African” or “European” segments of DNA to understand biological differences between groups, I was flirting with racism.
Note:L ESITO DELLA RICERCA VS CANCRO

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refer to the populations from which African Americans descend as “cluster A” and “cluster B.”
Note:TRUCCO....X EVITARE LE ACCUSE

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it would be dishonest to disguise the model
Note:MA

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the danger of work exploring biological differences among human populations.
Note:È UNA PREOCCUPAZIONE CHE ESISYE

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Ashley Montagu wrote Man’s Most Dangerous Myth: The Fallacy of Race,
Note:1942…UN CLASSICO

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race is a social concept and has no biological reality,
Note:TESI

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lack of substantial biological differences among human populations.
Note:1972…ATTEGGIAMENTO CORRETTO

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Richard Lewontin
Note:SOPRA

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study of variation in protein types in blood.
Note:LO STUDIO DI BASE X QS AFFERMAZIONE

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85 percent of variation in the protein types could be accounted for by variation within populations and “races,” and only 15 percent by variation across them.
Note:L ESITO DELLO STUDIO DI LEWOTIN...DA QUI LE CONCLUSIONI

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Human racial classification is of no social value and is positively destructive of social and human relations.
Note:RIPETIAMO LA CONCLUSIONE DI LEWOTIN...NUOVA ORTODOSSIA

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such racial classification is now seen
Note:MA

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orthodoxy that the biological differences among human populations are so modest that they should in practice be ignored—and
Note:LA NUOVA ORTO

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study of biological differences among populations should be avoided if at all possible.
Note:NN SOLO

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They see this work as located on a slippery slope
Note:PERICOLO

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political scientist Jacqueline Stevens
Note:SOTTO

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research and even emails discussing biological differences across populations should be banned,
Note:LA PROPOSTA

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prohibiting its staff or grantees…from publishing in any form—including internal documents and citations to other studies—claims
Note:ANCHE LE EMAIL

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The Language of Ancestry
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making it impossible to maintain the orthodoxy established over the last half century, as they are revealing hard evidence of substantial differences across populations.
Note:I NUOVI STUDI

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Marc Feldman and his colleagues showed that by studying enough places in the genome—they analyzed 377 variable positions—it is possible to group most people in a worldwide population sample into clusters that correlate strongly to popular categories of race in the United States: “African,” “European,” “East Asian,” “Oceanian,” or “Native American.”
Note:LA PRIMA BOTTA NEL 2002

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Svante Pääbo,
Note:ALTR PROT DELLA RICERCA

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director of the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig,

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FONDATO NEL 1997

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human population structure could be more like the anthropologist Frank Livingston’s suggestion that “there are no races, there are only clines”—a
Note:MISSIONE...VERIFICARE SE L APPROCCIO LIVING PUÒ ESSERE VALIDO...SI TENTA DI VERIFICARE IL LAVORO DI FELDMAN CHE PASSA PERÓ IL VAGLIO

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Another flurry of discussion followed a 2003 paper led by Neil Risch, who argued that racial grouping is useful in medical research,
Note:ALTO TEMA

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examples like sickle cell disease, which occurs far more often in African Americans than in other populations
Note:IL CASO CHE MISE IN SOSPETTO

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BiDil, a combination of two medications approved to treat heart failure in African Americans because data suggested it was more effective in African Americans than in European Americans.
Note:LA FDA

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focusing on methods to determine population origin not just of our ancestors but also of individual segments of our genomes.
Note:QUI ENTRA IL LAVORO DI REICH

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anthropologist Duana Fullwiley
Note:SOTT

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genetics community has invented a set of euphemisms to discuss topics that had become taboo.
Note:EUFEMISMI

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It is now undeniable that there are nontrivial average genetic differences across populations in multiple traits, and the race vocabulary is too ill-defined and too loaded with historical baggage to be helpful.
Note:UNA POSSIBILE POSIZIONE

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On the one side there are beliefs about the nature of the differences that are grounded in bigotry and have little basis in reality. On the other side there is the idea that any biological differences among populations are so modest that as a matter of social policy they can be ignored and papered over.
Note:PASARE TRA SCILLA E CARIDDI

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Real Biological Difference
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people who deny the possibility of substantial biological differences among populations across a range of traits are digging themselves into an indefensible position,
Note:UNA PAURA CONTROPRODUCENTE DEL RAZZISMO

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In the last couple of decades, most population geneticists have sought to avoid contradicting the orthodoxy.
Note:SFORZO INANE OGGI SENZA SENSO

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we have tended to obfuscate, making mathematical statements in the spirit of Richard Lewontin
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this carefully worded formulation is deliberately masking the possibility of substantial average differences in biological traits across populations.
Note:IPOCRISIA

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Compared to most academics, the politics of genome bloggers tend to the right—Razib Khan17 and Dienekes Pontikos18 post on findings of average differences across populations
Note:APPARENZA FISICA E VIGORIA ATLETICA

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the academics are not honoring the spirit of scientific truth-seeking.
Note:L ORIGINE DEI MOLTI BLOGGER

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pleasure in pointing out contradictions between the politically correct messages academics often give
Note:IL GODIMENTO DEI BLOGGER

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We cannot deny the existence of substantial average genetic differences across populations, not just in traits such as skin color, but also in bodily dimensions, the ability to efficiently digest starch or milk sugar, the ability to breathe easily at high altitudes, and susceptibility to particular diseases. These differences are just the beginning.
Note:ESEMPI DI DIFFERENZE APPURATE....E ALTRE NE ARRIVERANNO

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existence of subtler, average differences in traits
Note:A PRESCINDERE DALLE VARIAZIONI INTERNE ALA POPOLAZ

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Joseph L. Graves Jr.
Note:HA FORMULATO UN OBIEZIONE: SOLO I TRATTI CHE DIPENDONO DA POCHI GENI SI DIFFERENZIANO...LA PELLE È UN ESEMPIO

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if natural selection has exerted different pressures on two populations since they separated, traits influenced by many mutations are just as capable of achieving large average differences across populations as traits influenced by few mutations.
Note:A GRAVES HA TORTO

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The best example we currently have of a trait governed by many mutations is height.
Note:UN CASO CANONICO PER CONFUTARE GRAVES

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height is determined by thousands of variable positions across the genome.
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Joel Hirschhorn
Note:2012 SOPRA

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shorter average height in southern Europeans compared to northern Europeans.
Note:ES

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Jonathan Pritchard
Note:SOTTO

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increase in average infant head size
Note:TRATTO CAMBIATO GENETICAMENTE NEGLI ULTIMI 2000 ANNI IN GB

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genetic influence on bodily dimensions is one thing, but that cognitive and behavioral traits are another.
Note:ALTRA OB

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the information on the number of years of education
Note:PRESI DA CHI COMPILA I MODULI X TEST GENETII DI NATURA MEDICA

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Daniel Benjamin
Note:SOPRA SOTTO

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seventy-four genetic variations each of which has overwhelming evidence of being more common in people with more years of education
Note:LA SCOPERTA

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even after controlling for such possibly confounding factors as heterogeneity
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the power of genetics to predict number of years of education is far from trivial,
Note:SCOPERTA

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the probability of completing twelve years of education is 96 percent for the twentieth of people with the highest prediction compared to 37 percent for the lowest.
Note:IL PREDITTORE GENETICO COSTRUITO

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A study of more than one hundred thousand Icelanders showed that the variations also increase the age at which a woman has her first child,
Note:ALTRO PREDITORE GENETIC

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nudging people to defer having children, which makes it easier for them to complete their education.
Note:L EFFETTO POTREBBE ESSERE INDIRETTO

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older people in Iceland are systematically different from younger people in having a higher genetically predicted number of years of education.
Note:SELEZIONE A FAVORE DI CHI STUDIA MENO

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Augustine Kong,
Note:SOPRA

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changed within a century in a single population under the pressure of natural selection,
Note:A GRAN VELOCITÀ

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found mutations in more than twenty genes that were significantly predictive of performance on intelligence tests.
Note:SEMPRE LO STUDIO DI BENJAMIN

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even if such differences exist, they will be small.
Note:L ULTIMA DIFESA

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little time has passed since the separation of populations
Note:ARGOMENTO COLLATERALE

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But this argument doesn’t hold up either.
Note:SENTENZA

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is far from negligible on the time scale of human evolution.
Note:LA SEPARAZIONE DEI POPOLI

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If selection on height and infant head circumference can occur within a couple of thousand years,
Note:2000/ ANNI BASTANO

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Even if we do not yet know what the differences are, we should prepare our science and our society to be able to deal with the reality of differences
Note:UN LAVORO PREPARATORIO

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The approach of staying mum,
Note:APPROCCIO CHE LO SCIENZIATO NN PUÒ XMETTERSI

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we will leave a vacuum that will be filled by pseudoscience,
Note:L INCONVENIENTE

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The Genome Revolution’s Insight
Note:Ttttttttttttt COSA INTENDERE X RAZZA

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pointing to immutable categories such as “East Asians,” “Caucasians,” “West Africans,” “Native Americans,” and “Australasians,” with each group having been separated and unmixed for tens of thousands of years.
Note:ANCORA NEL 2012

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Marc Feldman produced clusters that corresponded relatively well to these categories,
Note:2002

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humans expanding out of Africa and the Near East after around fifty thousand years ago left descendant populations along the way, which in turn budded off their own descendant populations, with the present-day inhabitants of each region being descended directly from the modern humans who first arrived.
Note:IL ILENIA DELLO FELDMAN

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after being established, human populations hardly mixed with each other.
Note:CARATTERISTICA

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the present-day structure of populations does not reflect the one that existed many thousands of years ago.
Note:OGGI È CERTO...IL MODELLO FELDMAN NN REGGE

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the current populations of the world are mixtures of highly divergent populations that no longer exist in unmixed form—for
Note:CHI SIAMO

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Ancient North Eurasians,
Note:TIPICA POPOLAZIONE CHE SI È DILUITA IN EU E AMERICA

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descendants of the populations that lived in the same locations ten thousand years ago.
Note:CHI NN SIAMO

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nature of human population differences will correspond to racial stereotypes.
Note:RAZZE SÌ MA NN STEREOTIPATE

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we should distrust the instincts that we have about biological differences.
Note:CONSIGLIO

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person who has most recently made a prominent argument that there is a genetic basis to stereotypes about differences across human populations
Note:ACCUSA A NOCHOLAS WADE

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suggesting that a politically correct alliance of anthropologists and geneticists has banded together to suppress the truth
Note:COMPLOTTI IMMAGINARI

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an academic community trying to enforce an implausible orthodoxy.
Note:QUESTO È VERO...CARO WADE

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idea that not only are there substantial differences, but that they likely correspond to traditional racial stereotypes,
Note:MA L AGGIUNTA CHE FAI È FALSA

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combines compelling content with parts that are entirely speculative, presenting everything with the same authority
Note:LIBRI INSIDIOSI

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Gregory Cochran, Jason Hardy, and Henry Harpending
Note:SOTTO

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the high average intelligence quotient (IQ) of Ashkenazi Jews (more than one standard deviation above the world average), and their disproportionate share of Nobel Prizes (about one hundred times the world average), might reflect natural selection due to a millennium-long history in which Jewish populations practiced moneylending, a profession that required writing and calculation.
Note:ESEMPIO DI SPECULAZIONE

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Saharan African ancestry have no propensity to work when they don’t have to—“I’ve never seen anyone with a hobby in Africa,”
Note:SPECULAZIONE DI HENRY HARPENDING

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economist Gregory Clark suggesting that the reason the Industrial Revolution took off in Britain before it did elsewhere was the relatively high birth rate among wealthy people in Britain for the preceding five centuries compared to less wealthy people.
Note:ALTRA SPECULAZ

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Wade is suggesting that popular racist ideas about the differences that exist among populations have something to them.
Note:L ERRORE DI WADE

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James Watson, who in 1953 codiscovered the structure of DNA. Watson had until a few years earlier been the director of the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory
Note:ALTRO PERSONAGGIO

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the laboratory was the epicenter of the eugenics movement
Note:IL GUAIO CPN W

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lobbying for legislation that was passed in many states to sterilize people considered to be defective and to combat a perceived degradation of the gene pool.
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he was “inherently gloomy about the prospect of Africa,” adding that “[all] our social policies are based on the fact that their intelligence is the same as ours—whereas
Note:INTERVOSTA AL SUNDAY TIME

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He then said that Jews and Indian Brahmins were both high achievers because of genetic advantages
Note:ALTRA IPO DI W AZZARDAYA

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Indians in his experience were also servile, much like he thought they had been under British colonialism, and he speculated that this trait had come about because of selection under the caste system.
Note:ALTRA IPO MOLTO AZZARDAYA

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East Asian students tended to be conformist,
Note:ALTRA

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His obstreperousness may have been important to his success as a scientist. But now as an eighty-two-year-old man, his intellectual rigor was gone, and what remained was a willingness to vent his gut impressions
Note:UNA SPIEGAZ DI W

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we should take the cautionary lesson not to trust our gut instincts or the stereotyped expectations we find around us.
Note:LA LEZIONE

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the extreme overrepresentation of people of West African ancestry among elite sprinters.
Note:UN ESEMPIO DI COSA SAPPIAMO

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how should we prepare for the likelihood that in the coming years, genetic studies will show that behavioral or cognitive traits are influenced by genetic variation,
Note:IL PROBLEMA

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deny categorically that differences can exist
Note:LA STRATEGIA PIÚ SBAGLIATA

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tempting, in the wake of the genome revolution, to settle on a new comforting platitude, invoking the history of repeated admixture in the human past
Note:ALTRO VICOLO CIECO

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we would find that many of the population lineages contributing to them have been isolated from each other for long enough that there has been ample opportunity for substantial average biological differences
Note:INFATTI

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to realize that their existence should not affect the way we conduct ourselves.
Note:IL MDO GOUSTO...DIRITTI

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it is also important to keep in mind that there is a great diversity of human traits, including not just cognitive and behavioral traits,
Note:IN AGGIUNTA...COMPENSAZIONI GENETICHE

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For most traits, hard work and the right environment are sufficient to allow someone with a lower genetically predicted performance
Note:LA COMPENSAZIONE DELLA LIBERTÀ

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learn from the example of the biological differences that exist between males and females.
Note:LA VIA MAESTRA

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differences between the sexes are in fact more profound
Note:INFATTI

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Today we aspire both to recognize that biological differences exist and to accord everyone the same freedoms and opportunities regardless
Note:L ATTEGGIAMENTO

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A New Basis for Identity
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the power of the genome revolution for undermining old stereotypes
Note:LA MISSIONE

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The Nazi ideology of a “pure” Indo-European-speaking Aryan race with deep roots in Germany,
Note:ESEMPIO DI CREDENZA DISTRUTTA...

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came from a mass migration from the Russian steppe, a place that German nationalists would have despised as a source.
Note:ORIGINE DELLE POP TEDESCHE

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The Hindutva ideology that there was no major contribution to Indian culture from migrants from outside South Asia
Note:ALTRA CREDENZA DISTRUTTA

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multiple waves of mass migration from Iran and the Eurasian steppe within the last five thousand years.

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REALE ORIGINE

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Tutsis in Rwanda and Burundi have ancestry from West Eurasian farmers that Hutus do not—an
Note:ALTRA CREDENZA NONSENSE

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Alex Haley’s
Note:KUNTA KINTE E LA XDIRA DELLE RADICI...VEDI SOTTO

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Harvard professor of literature Henry Louis Gates Jr.
Note:SOTTO

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the potential of genetic studies to recover lost roots for African Americans.
Note:ALTRA MISSIONE

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A new industry, “personal ancestry testing,” has sprung up to capitalize on the potential of the genome revolution
Note:IN FUTURO

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They also used genetic tests to determine not only the continents on which people’s ancestors lived, but also the regions within continents.
Note:NEL PROG TELEVISIVO DI GATES

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The geneticist Rick Kittles,
Note:FONDATORE DELLA AFRICAN ANXESTRY...SOTTO

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“My female line goes back to northern Nigeria, the land of the Hausa tribe. I then went to Nigeria and talked to people and learned about the Hausa’s culture and tradition.
Note:ES DI RECUPERO DELLE RADICI

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the extraordinary human diversity that exists
Note:DI QS DOBBIAMO ESSERE CONSCI

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Every year on the holiday of Passover, Jews sit around the dinner table and recount the story of the Exodus from Egypt.
Note:UN ESEMPIO DI COME LE RADICI CONTANO

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The story allows Jews to think of those millions of coreligionists as direct relations—and to treat them with equal respect and seriousness
Note:COSA ESALTA LA STORIA DELL ESODO

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For me, the multitude of interconnected populations that have contributed to each of our genomes provide a similar narrative
ANALOGIA CON LA POP MONDIALE...CHI STUDIA LA GENETICA DELLE POP