9 Numbers
                    
                            
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            9.1   Cardinal numbers as properties
                
                    
                            
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            what is a number?
                
                    
                            
                                Note:IN CERCA DI TEORIE ALTERNATIVE
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            A cardinal number is a kind of property.1 These properties are best ‘defined ostensively’, that is, by giving examples.
                
                    
                            
                                Note:DEF...SI PARTE DA ESEMPI
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            I would show them something like Figure 9.1. In that picture, there are two stars, two hexagons, and two lightning bolts.
                
                    
                            
                                Note:COME INSEGNARE IL NUMERO 2
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            It is no coincidence that this is how children are actually taught
                
                    
                            
                                Note:BAMBINI
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            The ontological status of the number two is thus the same as that of other universals,
                
                    
                            
                                Note:ONTOLOGIA
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            9.2   Frege’s objection
                
                    
                            
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            the same concrete thing can be said to instantiate different numbers. Suppose you have a deck of cards. What is the number that it instantiates? Well, it is one deck, but it is fifty-two cards.
                
                    
                            
                                Note:OBIEZIONE DEL MAZZO DI CARTE
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            Therefore, number is not a property of a concrete object, such as the deck of cards. Instead, Frege proposes, numbers must be properties of ‘concepts’
                
        
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            SOLUZIONE FREGE...OB IDWALISTA...ACCETFABILW IMO
        
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            we resolve the puzzle of the deck of cards by saying that there are two distinct concepts: the concept ‘deck’ (or maybe, ‘deck that is on this table now’) and the concept ‘card’ (or, ‘card that is on this table now’),
                
                    
                            
                                Note:SOLUZIONE
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            Cantor and Russell, on the other hand, would ditch the talk of concepts and say that there are two distinct sets:
                
                    
                            
                                Note:SOLUZIONE RUSSELL
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            Each number is a property of a concrete particular
                
                    
                            
                                Note:L ASSUNTO CONSIDERATO DA FREGE
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            there is only one number that is capable of being a property of a concrete particular, and that is the number 1. It is logically impossible, for example, for the number 2 to be a property of a concrete object; the number 2 can only be a property of two concrete objects.
                
                    
                            
                                Note:L ASSUNTO CORRETTO E IMPERMEABILE ALLA CRITICA DI FREGE
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            it is not that twoness applies to the set {a,b};
                
                    
                            
                                Note:CccccccccFACCIAMO A MENO DEGLI INSIEMI
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            If we’re talking about the aggregate of the cards, that instantiates the number 1.
                
                    
                            
                                Note:QUINDI
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            9.3   Arithmetical operations
                
                    
                            
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            ‘Two apples plus three apples make five apples’ means something like this: if you have two apples, and you also have three more apples (that is, three that are each different from either of the original two), then you have five apples.
                
                    
                            
                                Note:ADDIZIONE....E COSÌ LE ALTRE
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            It is not, for example, a matter of bringing the apples into spatial proximity.
                
                    
                            
                                Note:L OPERAZIONE NN È FISICA
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            Adding two apples to three apples is solely a matter of considering two apples and, without making any changes to any of the apples, considering an additional three apples,
                
                    
                            
                                Note:OPERAZIONE MENTALE
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            There is not even any passage of time assumed:
                
                    
                            
                                Note:TEMPO
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            This is why arithmetical statements are necessary and knowable a priori.
                
                    
                            
                                Note:A PRIORI
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            9.4   The laws of arithmetic
                
                    
                            
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            a+b = b+a    (Commutative Law of Addition)
                
                    
                            
                                Note:LA PIÙ FAMOSA DELLA LEGGI
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            Why do these hold, and how do we know them? In essence, the reason why (a + b) is equal to (b + a) is that the expressions ‘(a + b)’ and ‘(b + a)’ are synonymous:
                
                    
                            
                                Note:SINONIMIA
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            9.5   Zero
                
                    
                            
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            If the number n is instantiated by n things, then the number zero must be instantiated by zero things. But there cannot be a property that,
                
                    
                            
                                Note:OBIEZIONE
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            Reply: zero is not the same kind of thing as one, two, three, and so on.
                
                    
                            
                                Note:RISPOSTA
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            zero is not a number.
                
                    
                            
                                Note:INFATTI
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            if I have zero cookies, I should not say, ‘I have a number of cookies’;
                
                    
                            
                                Note:SENSO COMUNE
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            It is no coincidence that the concept of zero has a quite different history
                
                    
                            
                                Note:INFATTI
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            Objection: ‘But we can do arithmetical operations using zero. How could that be, if zero is not a true number,
                
                    
                            
                                Note:OBIEZIONE
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            When we decide to extend the number system by including zero, we define arithmetical operations for zero in such a way as to keep the whole system coherent.
                
                    
                            
                                Note:RISPOSTA...SEMPLIFICAZIONE
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            Famously, there is one case in which we do not define the arithmetical operations for zero, namely, the case of division.
                
                    
                            
                                Note:E LE ECCEZIONI NN MANCANO...A RIBADIRE CHE...
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            what is the referent of ‘0’ in its noun usage?
                
        
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            LA DOMANDA CHE RESTA
        
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            The answer is that the symbol does not require a referent to be meaningful. In the same way that the noun ‘nothing’ lacks a referent,
                
                    
                            
                                Note:RISPISTA
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            The point is simply that ‘zero’ functions differently in some important ways from ‘one’, ‘two’,
                
                    
                            
                                Note:NN SI TRATTA DI VOLER ESPELLERE LO ZERI DAI NUMER
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            9.6   A digression on large numbers
                
                    
                            
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            there are about 1080 atoms in the observable universe;
                
                    
                            
                                Note:STENOGRAFIA
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            Now we can define another operation known as ‘tetration’, symbolized by ‘↑↑’, to represent repeated exponentiation.
                
                    
                            
                                Note:X È UN RIPETUTO + E ESP È UN RIPETUTO X
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            After that, there is the operation of pentation (symbolized by ‘↑↑↑’), which is repeated tetration.
                
                    
                            
                                Note:OLTRE
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            9.7   Magnitudes and real numbers
                
                    
                            
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            9.7.1   Magnitudes vs. numbers
                
                    
                            
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            The concept of magnitude is probably undefinable,
                
                    
                            
                                Note:OCCORRONO ESEMPI
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            the height of the Eiffel Tower, the temperature of a cup of coffee, the mass of the Milky Way Galaxy.
                
                    
                            
                                Note:ESEMPI
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            properties of concrete objects.
                
                    
                            
                                Note:MAGNITUDO
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            refers to a dimension
                
                    
                            
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            refers to a particular value
                
                    
                            
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            Magnitude values are represented using real numbers. The magnitudes, however, are not themselves numbers.
                
                    
                            
                                Note:M E N
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            The Eiffel Tower is approximately 324 meters tall, which is to say about 1063 feet tall. If the height of the Tower is a number, which one is it? Is it around 324, or around 1063?
                
                    
                            
                                Note:QUI FREGE HA RAGIONE
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            the number that we use to represent the height of the Tower is not a property of the tower. But the height is a property of the tower. So the height is not a number.
                
                    
                            
                                Note:ALTEZZA E NUMERO
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            9.7.2   Real numbers as relationships
                
                    
                            
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            What, then, is a real number?
                
                    
                            
                                Note:PRIMA AVEVAMO DEFINITO I N NATURALI COME UNA PROP DEGLI OGGETTO...ORA DEFINIREMO I REALI COME UNA RELAZIONE...I NUMERI QUANDO ESPRIMONO UN UNITÀ DI MISURA
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            start with how we use real numbers to describe the world.
                
                    
                            
                                Note:PROCEDIMENTO
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            Eiffel Tower is 324 meters tall.
                
                    
                            
                                Note:2
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            ‘324’ records a relationship between the height of the Tower and a unit,
                
                    
                            
                                Note:ALTEZZA E METRI
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            The metaphysical background is that magnitude values come in classes that are comparable to each other.
                
                    
                            
                                Note:CONFRONTABILITÀ XFETTA
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            When a magnitude is greater than another magnitude, this greaterness comes in degrees.
                
                    
                            
                                Note:NUMERI E MAGNITUDO
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            9.7.3   In defense of the bifurcated account of number
                
                    
                            
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            ‘324 is a real number, since an object could be exactly 324 times as long as the standard meter. 324 is also a natural number. But on your account, a natural number is a property, whereas a real number is a relationship.
                
                    
                            
                                Note:OBIEZIONE DELLA BIFORCAZIONE
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            It turns out that there are two numbers 324: the cardinal number and the real number.
                
                    
                            
                                Note:RISPOSTA
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            Now you might wonder: why not take a uniform view of cardinal numbers and real numbers?
                
                    
                            
                                Note:DUBBIO
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            Frege’s deck-of-cards problem by saying that the same physical aggregate is differently related to two different units: it bears the ‘52-fold’ relationship to the unit ‘card’, while bearing the ‘one-fold’ relationship to the unit ‘deck’.
                
                    
                            
                                Note:SOLUZIONE SEMPLICE
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            The relationship theory requires that there be an object to be the first relatum, that is, the thing that is supposed to stand in a relationship to a unit.
                
                    
                            
                                Note:INCONVENIENTE
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            suppose there are seven reasons for being suspicious of set theory.
                
                    
                            
                                Note:DOV È QUI L OGGETTO?
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            an object that has each of the seven reasons as parts?
                
                    
                            
                                Note:L OGGETTO MISTERIOSO....SETTE RAGIONI SETTE METRI
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            9.7.4   Measures and magnitudes
                
                    
                            
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            measure theory,
                
                    
                            
                                Note:BRANCA DELLA MATEMATICA
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            9.7.5   Intensive vs. extensive magnitudes
                
                    
                            
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            Extensive magnitudes are those that are additive across the parts of an object.
                
                    
                            
                                Note:ESTENSIVE
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            the magnitude values of all of these parts will contribute additively to the magnitude value of the whole.
                
                    
                            
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            length is an extensive magnitude.
                
                    
                            
                                Note:ESEMPIO
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            Similarly for volume:
                
                    
                            
                                Note:ALTRO ESEMPIO
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            Intensive magnitudes, by contrast, are magnitudes that do not arise from adding together the magnitudes of the parts of an object,
                
                    
                            
                                Note:INTENSIVE
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            For example, the temperature
                
                    
                            
                                Note:ESEMPIO
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            There may be ambiguous cases. Consider the property of mass.
                
                    
                            
                                Note:A METÀ
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            9.7.6   Natural vs. artificial magnitudes
                
                    
                            
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            schmass of an object is defined to be the reciprocal of 3 minus the object’s mass in kilograms:
                
                    
                            
                                Note:MAGNITUDO INVENTATA...SI PUÒ
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            I will soften that a bit and simply call schmass an ‘artificial’ magnitude,
                
                    
                            
                                Note:ARTIFICIALE
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            As a first approximation, I will take causal efficacy as the test of naturalness.
                
                    
                            
                                Note:SEMPLICITÀ
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            9.8   Indexing uses of numbers
                
                    
                            
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            suppose you are in a hotel, in room 210.
                
                    
                            
                                Note:NUMERO INDICE
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            indicating that there are 210 of something;
                
                    
                            
                                Note:NUMERO NATURALE?
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            indicating that something is 210 times greater than
                
                    
                            
                                Note:NUMERO REALE?
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            ‘210’ is simply being used as a name for that room.
                
                    
                            
                                Note:USO IN QS CASO
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            a number term being used in a way that does not really refer to a number.
                
                    
                            
                                Note:CONCLUSIONE
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            This is what I refer to as an indexing use of numbers. In an indexing use, some number is used as a name for a more or less arbitrary item or value,
                
                    
                            
                                Note:INDEXING
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            9.9.1   Rational vs. irrational numbers
                
                    
                            
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            9.9.2   Negative numbers
                
                    
                            
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            9.9.3   Imaginary numbers
                
                    
                            
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            x2 = −1’.
                
                    
                            
                                Note:NUMERI IMMAGINARI
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            One cannot conjure such a number into existence just by fiat, as the standard approach seems to suppose. Trying to solve the equation ‘x2 = −1’ by inventing a new number is like trying to solve the equation ‘x + 1 = x’ by inventing a new number,
                
                    
                            
                                Note:DIFFICILI DA CONCEPIRE
                            
                    
                
            
        
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            9.9.4   Infinitesimal numbers
                
                    
                            
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            An infinitesimal number is a number that is smaller than any positive real number but yet greater than zero.
                
                    
                            
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