Siamo pesci inclini a dimenticare l'acqua dove sono immersi. Viviamo la nostra vita agitandoci in un caleidoscopio di metafore, è un universo senza gravità dove oggi il cuore è una "pompa" ma domani nulla impedirebbe che la pompa fosse un "cuore". Non c'è un' àncora da gettare in nessun luogo. Ci proviamo imponendoci dei dogmi che presto si sgretolano. Ci proviamo con la Ragione ma la metafora di mestiere divide l'universo in almeno due livelli originando così i ben noti paradossi dell'autoreferenzialità, cio' pregiudica il fondamento razionale di qualsiasi metafisica. Il loop delle metafore contamina tutto, contamina la matematica (Goedel), contamina l'arte (Escher), contamina la musica (Bach), contamina i cervelli (Hofstadter)... Eppure alla metafora non possiamo rinunciare, ci serve per muoverci, ci serve per avere una mappa, per memorizzare e identificare un "meccanismo complesso" trasformandolo in una "storia" o in una "filastrocca". "Riccardo" è un'ottima metafora di "r" + "i" + "c" + "c" + "a" + "r" + "d" + "o". Grazie ad essa ricordo il mio nome, senza di essa si trasformerebbe in un codice fiscale. Questo compito lo assolve bene, purché la si cambi all'occorrenza: ora utilizzi la metafora scientifica per buttarla al momento opportuno sostituendola con quella religiosa. C'è una mappa per tutte le occasioni. Francamente, vedo poco spazio per infondere "realismo" nella religione ma ce n'è molto per infondere anti-realismo nella scienza.
giovedì 7 novembre 2024
mercoledì 17 luglio 2024
verità è naturalismo
Il monista, per esempio il naturalista, puo' muoversi solo in una dimensione, rinunciando a concetti come "realtà" e "verità". Forse il naturalista, non disponendo delle virgolette, non dispone nemmeno di una semantica compiuta. Se questo è vero, non riesce nemmeno a dire di aver ragione:
1) Tutti i fatti completamente riducibili alla prima dimensione (per esempio alla fisica) sono fatti del primo ordine.
2) I fatti sulla nostra affidabilità epistemica sono fatti sulla verità.
3) I fatti sulla verità non sono mai completamente riducibili a fatti del primo ordine.
4) Pertanto, nessuna spiegazione completa della nostra affidabilità epistemica è completamente riducibile alla fisica.
La terza premessa deriva dal Teorema dell'Indefinibilità della Verità di Tarski, quello per cui "la neve è bianca" è vero se la neve è bianca.
La verità non sembra una proprietà naturale, quindi il naturalista si preclude di parlarne: Tutte le proprietà naturali sono di primo ordine. La verità non è una proprietà di primo ordine. Quindi la verità non è una proprietà naturale. Quindi il naturalismo semantico non è vero. Ma forse esistono verità di primo ordine ma sono modeste, forse non si puo' parlare nemmeno di "menti": le menti rappresentano il mondo, ecc., e parlare di rappresentazione è almeno a prima vista non di primo ordine.
Con questo non voglio criticare il naturalismo o altri monismi, dico solo che abbracciare queste posizioni è un po' come dire addio alla filosofia, al realismo e ai discorsi sulla verità. Conta solo cio' che "funziona", che "conviene", che "serve", ovvero cio' che appare come evidenza che non richiede parole. E' bene che si sappia e che lo sappia visto che ho imboccato questa strada.
In un bel paper , Leon Porter dimostra che il naturalismo semantico è falso. Un modo per esprimere l'argomento è il seguente:
Se il naturalismo semantico è vero, la verità è una proprietà naturale.
Tutte le proprietà naturali sono di primo ordine.
La verità non è una proprietà di primo ordine.
Quindi la verità non è una proprietà naturale.
Quindi il naturalismo semantico non è vero.
Si può dimostrare (3) utilizzando il paradosso del bugiardo o semplicemente prenderlo come il risultato del teorema di indefinibilità della verità di Tarski.
Naturalmente il naturalismo implica il naturalismo semantico, quindi l'argomento confuta il naturalismo.
Ma oggi, parlando con Bryan Reece, mi è venuto in mente che forse si potrebbe avere una versione più debole del naturalismo, che potremmo chiamare naturalismo di primo ordine, secondo il quale tutte le verità di primo ordine sono verità naturali.
Il naturalismo di primo ordine sfugge all'argomentazione di Porter. È un naturalismo piuttosto limitato, ma ha una certa forza. Implica, ad esempio, che Zeus non esista. Perché se Zeus esiste, allora che Zeus esista è una verità di primo ordine che non è naturale.
Il naturalismo di primo ordine è una tesi naturalistica curiosamente modesta. È interessante riflettere sui suoi limiti. Uno che mi viene in mente è che non sembra includere il naturalismo sulle menti, poiché non sembra possibile caratterizzare le menti nel linguaggio di primo ordine (le menti rappresentano il mondo, ecc., e parlare di rappresentazione è almeno a prima vista non di primo ordine).
mercoledì 5 giugno 2024
perché non sono oggettivista huemer Why I Am Not an Objectivist
sabato 2 marzo 2019
HL The Virtues of Direct Realism michael huemer
H2O
mercoledì 28 febbraio 2018
Tiffany
Tiffany, per esempio, è un nome "talmente medievale" che se lo utilizzi in una storia ambientata nell'anno mille si capisce subito che è una fiction.
In effetti, nel mettere a punto le "macchine della verità" l' accuratezza nelle risposte fornite è considerata con sospetto.
martedì 18 luglio 2017
Realismi
Realismi
Hold a finger in front of your face. Focus your eyes on the finger, but attend to a distant object in the background. If you’re doing this right, the background object should appear double and blurry. If you now bring the background object into focus, you will see the finger in your visual field split into two, blurry fingers. There is, of course, a scientific explanation for why this happens. It has to do with the fact that each of your eyes has a different vantage point on the room; one of the finger-images is produced by your left eye, and the other by your right eye. But the scientific explanation is not our concern here.
the relationship between perception and reality. Obviously, there are not really two fingers in the physical world. Nevertheless, you are “seeing” two of something. Therefore, we ask: What is it that there are two of?
A number of philosophers have put forward the following answer: There are two images of the finger in your mind. It is these images—rather than the actual, physical finger—that you are directly aware of; that is why there appear to be two fingers.
if the blurry “fingers” that you see are really only images in the mind, it seems that the in-focus “finger” is also an image in the mind.
There are similar arguments for the rest of the five senses, to show that what we directly perceive is always an image or “representation” in our minds.
All of this is leading up to the question: How do you know that you aren’t, right now, a brain in a vat?
Direct realists maintain—contrary to the argument given above—that we are directly aware of real, physical objects in perception and that this explains how we know about the nature of those objects.
Indirect realists hold, instead, that our awareness of the real world is indirect. They accept arguments like the one given above, which says that what we are immediately aware of in perception is only mental images; however, they say that we can infer the existence of real objects corresponding to our images, because that is the best explanation for why we have the sort of mental images we do.
Idealists hold that there is no objective world; there is only the mind and the images, thoughts, feelings, and so on in the mind. (This is called “idealism” because the mental images used to be called “ideas.”)
Skeptics hold that we cannot know that there is an objective world nor, if there is one, what it is like.
In the subsequent chapters, I will defend direct realism against all comers.
When a person first hears about the brain-in-a-vat scenario, he is apt to have one of three reactions. Reaction #1: “That’s stupid. I refuse to talk about that.” Reaction #2: “Gosh, maybe I am a brain in a vat. How would I know?” Reaction #3: “What is wrong with this argument? And what can I learn from that about the nature of knowledge?” I would like to encourage you to cultivate reaction #3.
I have just defended two traditional “direct realist” theses: first, that in perception, the things of which we are directly aware are the real, physical objects, and second, that as a result of perception, we know noninferentially that there are external objects having certain observable properties. I think this is the view of common sense, on both counts.
I call it “direct realism,” but it is also often called “naive realism,”
But this universal and primary opinion of all men is soon destroyed by the slightest philosophy, which teaches us that nothing can ever be present to the mind but an image or perception…. The table which we see seems to diminish as we remove farther from it; but the real table, which exists independent of us, suffers no alteration; it was, therefore, nothing but its image which was present to the mind.
It is sometimes called “the argument from illusion,” but I beg leave to change its name, since the example to which Hume here appeals is an example of the phenomenon of perspective, not an example of an illusion.
Now, says the indirect realist, since the character (specifically, the content) of our experiences depends on factors that have nothing to do with the character of the physical objects we’re supposedly (that is, according to direct realists) perceiving, we have to conclude that our experiences do not really count as awareness of those objects after all.
direct realists need not challenge the general premise about the nature of awareness. We can instead find properties of the external object that do vary alongside the variations in our experience to which the indirect realist is calling attention.
What the sense of sight makes one aware of, directly and in the primary sense, is the angular sizes of objects, relative to the point at which the observer is located. Obviously, the angular size of an object will vary (assuming the object keeps the same linear size) depending on how far away from it one is. Given this, that the table will look smaller as you move away from it is precisely what we should expect if we are seeing the real table. This change marks no illusion; in fact, as Thomas Reid pointed out in his response to Hume, it is evidence in favor of our seeing the real object.
it is essential to keep clearly in mind what is the issue between direct and indirect realists. The issue is whether the immediate objects of awareness in perception are subjective or objective—whether they are mental phenomena or physical phenomena. What I have done is to concede the relational character of these objects, but not their subjective character.
In my view, then, the argument from perspective rests on a confounding of two distinctions: the objective versus subjective distinction and the intrinsic versus relational distinction. Perspectival variation shows that what we are directly, visually aware of is not an intrinsic property of the external object, since it depends on our position.
Suppose you keep one hand in a bowl of ice-cold water for a minute, while at the same time the other hand is immersed in hot water. Then you simultaneously plunge both hands into a third container full of lukewarm water. What you would find is that the same water feels warm to the first hand and cool to the second hand. Traditionally, opponents of direct realism try to use this phenomenon to show that we do not really perceive the actual temperature of the water, for one and the same tub of water cannot simultaneously be both warm and cool.
How should a direct realist explain what goes on in this experiment with the three tubs of water? One might try saying that you are aware of the temperature difference between the water and your hand. But there is a better answer: your sensations make you aware of the heat transfer between your hand and the water. The water “feels cool” to the one hand because heat is flowing from the hand to the water.
Notice the strategy of this response: I concede that the property we are aware of in the example, the property we detect, is not an intrinsic property of the water (temperature). But nor is it something subjective (a sensation). Instead, I propose that it is objective but relational (heat transfer).
I am not saying, here, that all the properties we detect through perception are relational; some of them, at least, are intrinsic. For instance, by the sense of touch, one can be aware of the ordinary, three-dimensional shapes of objects.
we make one more use of the optical illusion involving the stick half-submerged in water. The stick looks bent but is in fact straight. Can this phenomenon be used to show that we are not directly aware of the stick?
The argument from illusion needs two stages. First, the indirect realist wants to argue that in this case, what one is immediately aware of cannot be the actual stick, and that it must be, instead, a sense datum. Second, the indirect realist wants to argue that if we are aware of a sense datum in this case, then we are also aware of sense data in normal cases, even when there is no illusion.
I don’t think that, because the stick appears bent when it really is not, it follows that you are not directly aware of the stick. … Here is a logically sound argument: When you look at the stick, you are directly aware of something that is bent. No (relevant) physical object is bent at this time. Therefore, the thing you are directly aware of is something nonphysical. If (3) is true, then it would seem that we must posit a sense datum as being the thing that is bent.
first premise is false. When you look at the stick, you are directly aware of something (namely, the stick) that looks bent, but it is not in fact bent.
When you look at the stick, you are directly aware of something that appears bent. No (relevant) physical object is bent at this time. Therefore, the thing you are directly aware of is something nonphysical.
we could always say that we are aware of something that appears bent but isn’t.
My claims (a) that we are aware of objective, relational properties of physical objects in perception, (b) that in the case of illusions, we are also aware of physical objects, though they are not quite the way they appear, and (c) that hallucination is not awareness of anything,
He asks us to compare a case in which a person sees a table with a case in which a person has a perfectly vivid and realistic hallucination of a table. Assume that the hallucination is qualitatively just like a perception,
The person with the hallucination has the same justification for believing there is a table as does the person who is seeing the table. In the case of the hallucination, the person’s justification for believing there is a table does not consist in his being directly acquainted with a table. Therefore, in the case of normal perception, the person’s justification for believing there is a table does not consist in his being directly acquainted with a table.
it is not an argument against my version of direct realism, because I do not say that our justification for believing in external objects consists in our being directly acquainted with them. I say that our justification for believing in external objects consists in the fact that, when we have perceptual experiences, external objects seem to us to be present, and there is no evidence in general against this. The person with the perfectly vivid hallucination also has an experience such that a table seems to him to be present and also (we assume) has no evidence against this; therefore, on my account, he has the same kind and degree of justification for believing in the table as we normally do when we see tables.
If you look at your finger while it is out of focus, you will seem to see two fingers; alternately, you can induce double vision by pushing on one eyeball. Recall that the argument went, essentially, like this: In the case of double vision, you see two of something. There are not two (relevant) physical objects that you’re seeing. Therefore, what you see is something nonphysical.
One possibility is to treat double vision as a kind of hallucination. We could then say: “You are not seeing two of something; you merely seem to be seeing two things.
the correct description of the case is this: There is a single, physical object that you are seeing; however, that object seems to be in two places. That is, your visual experience incorrectly represents the finger in two different places.8 This is a case of a visual illusion.
Suppose you are looking at a star, up in the sky. Suppose the star is (or was) one thousand light-years away. That means that it takes 1000 years for light to travel from the star to where you are. Now, suppose that the star was actually destroyed 300 years ago. You would still be “seeing” it, because light it emitted before it was destroyed is still traveling towards Earth. People on Earth will continue to “see” this star for another 700 years. But wait—how can you be seeing something that doesn’t (now) exist?
So what is it that you’re really seeing? Indirect realists have a ready answer, of course: a sense datum of a star.
Perhaps what you are really seeing is simply the light emitted by the star, rather than either the star itself or a sense datum. The light from the star continues to exist at the time you have the visual experience, so there’s no problem, right?
Here is another example. You’re in a large baseball stadium. You watch the batter hit the ball. A second after you see this, you hear the crack of the bat striking the ball, due to the fact that sound travels slower than light. Should we say that you are not really hearing the bat striking the ball, since that event no longer exists? Wouldn’t it be more natural to say simply that you hear the event a second after it happened?
It is well known that an object does not directly cause a perceptual experience in an observer—that there are intermediary processes that must take place in order for one to perceive a thing. In order for me to see the cup on the table, for instance, light rays have to travel the distance between the cup and my eye. Then electrical signals have to travel down my optic nerve. Then my brain has to process the information.
must we not conclude that I am not “directly aware” of the object?
if being directly aware of a thing means having awareness of it not based upon one’s awareness of anything else, then these considerations are irrelevant, for the aforementioned processes intervening between the cup and my experience of a cup do not include any states of awareness.
Brain processes cause my visual experience, but I am not seeing brain processes; I am seeing the cup.
According to this next objection, the physical objects around you are really colorless. The colors you think you are seeing on the surfaces of physical objects either do not exist, or exist only in the mind, as properties of sense data.
It seems that any answer one gives to the question Which of the colors we seem to see under various lighting conditions is the true color of the object? will have to be merely stipulative.
Put this another way: assume that color is really an objective property of the surfaces of physical objects. Then a physical object can have one and only one color (in a given place at a given time).
if we can never know the true color of anything, then why believe things have any true colors at all? Ockham’s razor would seem to dictate the elimination of such unknowable and explanatorily useless properties.
Without even considering colorblind people, it is common to have two people disagree about the color of an object—for example, A says the shirt is red, B says it is orange.
If colors are really out there in the objects, this raises the question Whose color perceptions are right?
Third, we can make almost the same argument again by appealing to the more radical differences in color perception among species. Some animals can only perceive differences of light and dark, and not differences of hue.
Such are the arguments for the illusoriness of color. These arguments leave two alternatives open—if one accepts that physical objects aren’t colored, one might thence conclude that nothing has color, or one might conclude that colors are properties of sense data, rather than being properties of physical objects.
I believe that similar arguments can be given for tastes, smells, and sounds, to the effect that they are not in the objective, physical world either. Be that as it may, for the sake of brevity we focus only on colors.
let’s say that Bob has a pair of severely green-tinted glasses. When he puts on the glasses, everything looks green or black, regardless of what is (as we would ordinarily say) its true color. So now Bob has a red tomato in front of him. He puts on the glasses, and the tomato looks a very dark green or black. In this case, Bob is not seeing the color of the tomato,
There have been a number of philosophical theories about the nature of color, including: (a) There is no such thing as color. (b) Colors are properties of sense data. © Colors are dispositions that physical objects have to cause experiences of certain sorts in us. (d)Colors are dispositions that physical objects have to reflect light in certain ways. (e) Colors are complex properties of the surfaces of objects, including perhaps their textures and the electron structures of the molecules they contain, that explain the dispositions spoken of in (c) and (d). (f)Colors are undefinable and irreducible properties of the surfaces of physical objects. By calling them “irreducible” I mean they are not identical with any of the things spoken of in (c), (d), or (e), nor with anything else along those general lines.
All I need to do is show that (a) and (b) are not the most plausible alternatives. Alternatives (c), (d), and (e) all allow that physical objects are colored and so present no problem for direct realism as far as the present argument is concerned. It will suffice, then, to show that something along the lines of (c), (d), or (e) is more plausible than (a) or (b).
I think (a) is implausible because it just seems obvious that I’m seeing a brown thing now.
I propose to elaborate position (d), as perhaps the most natural and widely held sort of view.
The main philosophical objection to such a view derives from the problem of metamers. Metamers are different spectral reflectance patterns that nevertheless look the same to the human eye … In other words, it is possible to have two surfaces that have very different spectral reflectance distributions, but that nevertheless look the same to us, so that we would classify them as the same color. …
we can say that there are two different systems for classifying colors. The scientific classification of spectral reflectance distributions (which are, in fact, colors) makes finer discriminations than the ordinary, everyday classification, but this does not make the latter wrong in an intrinsic sense; it simply answers to different interests.
We turn, now, to the first argument for the illusoriness of color: the apparent colors of things vary depending on the lighting conditions, so what are the conditions under which we perceive the true colors of objects? The obvious answer is: normal lighting conditions. That means reasonably (but not blindingly) bright, white light. So the pink look of objects under red light is just an illusion,
The vagueness of words in ordinary language provides an example of the same sort of indeterminacy; for example, there is no objective fact of the matter as to exactly how many seconds a person must have been alive in order for him to count as “old,” so the content of “old” is indeterminate.
The second argument for the illusoriness of color appealed to the variations in color experiences among normal humans, while the third appealed to the variations among species.
My response to these two arguments is the same. I say that these differences are differences in the qualia of the visual experiences, not in their contents. As a result, it need not be the case that one person, or one species, is “wrong.”
I have two major objections to indirect realism. One is epistemological: indirect realists make much easier targets for skeptics than direct realists do,
The other major objection, which I will focus on in this chapter, is metaphysical. The indirect realist says that in perception, we are directly aware (only) of some sort of mental phenomena, which we’re calling “sense data.” The problem I want to raise for the indirect realist centers around the question Where are sense data located?
My argument against sense data, in brief, is this: In perception, the things I am directly aware of (at least sometimes) have locations. Only physical things have locations. Therefore, the things I am directly aware of in perception (at least sometimes) are physical things.