Notebook per
john ray sugli stereotipi DO WE STEREOTYPE STEREOTYPING STEREOTYPING AND RACISM
Citation (APA): ray, j. (2017). john ray sugli stereotipi DO WE STEREOTYPE STEREOTYPING STEREOTYPING AND RACISM[Kindle Android version]. Retrieved from Amazon.com
Parte introduttiva
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DO WE STEREOTYPE STEREOTYPING? STEREOTYPING AND RACISM J.J. Ray
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Introduction
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A notion that seems to figure prominently in most explanations of racism is the notion of stereotyping. It certainly seems to occur in almost all elementary psychology and social psychology textbook accounts of racism. It will be submitted here, however, that even a desultory reading of the social cognition literature pushes us towards the view that stereotyping neither causes racism nor has any useful role in its explanation.
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x TESI DELLO SCOLLEGAMENTO
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A hard-to-dislodge theory about hard-to-dislodge theories
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as Weber & Crocker (1983) point out, the old Lippman view of stereotypes as being mythical, rigidly held and highly resistant to change still seems to be widely believed among psychologists.
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x ORTODOSSIA LIPPMAN
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More careful writers (e.g. Allport, 1954) admit that stereotypes may often have a "kernel of truth"
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x INIZIO REVISIONE
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there can be positive (laudatory) as well as negative (pejorative) stereotypes
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x POSITIVO E NEGATIVO
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Stereotyping and ethnocentrism theory
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Sumner (1906)
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Adorno, Frenkel-Brunswik, Levinson & Sanford (1950).
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This theory predicts that people who place a high value on their own group will tend to scorn outgroups.
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x ETNOCENTRISMO E STEREOTIPI
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Outgroup sentiment a mirror of ingroup sentiment?
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Driedger & Clifton (1984)
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From their Table III we find that the correlation between autostereotype and heterostereotype is in only one case out of 24 above
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x CORRELAZIONE SCARSA
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Thinking well of your own group, in other words, has virtually nothing to do with thinking ill of other groups.
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x PENSAR BENE DI SÈ
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For example: "Not only is ingroup favoritism in the laboratory situation not related to outgroup dislike, it also does not seem causally dependant on denigration of the outgroup" (Turner, 1978,
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x ALTRA RICERCA
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See also Brewer & Collins (1981, p. 350) and Brown, Condor, Matthews, Wade & Williams (1986).
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x ALTRI AUTORI
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Ray & Furnham, 1984; Heaven, Rajab & Ray, 1985 and Ray & Lovejoy, 1986).
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x ALTRI AUTORI
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There is, furthermore, a substantial body of thought which sees pro-ingroup sentiment as something like self-esteem --i.e. a positive influence and a basis for a healthy, adaptive and positive view of the world. It is hard to think well of outgroups if you do not think well of your own group.
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x TEORIA CONTRARIA
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Mihalyi, 1984/ 85)
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c
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Cairns (1982), Furnham & Kirris (1983) and Elwert (1982).
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c
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Truth in Stereotyping
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Stereotyping studies in fact almost invariably find that responses to different ethnic groups are highly differentiated (e.g. Kippax & Brigden, 1967; Gallois, Callan & Parslow, 1982; Callan & Gallois, 1983; Houser, 1979).
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x GLI STEREOTIPI SONO DIFFERENZIATI
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Newman, Liss & Sherman (1983), Ray (1974) and Ray & Lovejoy (1986)
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c
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what is believed of one ethnic group is not believed of others. Jews, for instance, are seen as different from blacks.
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x DIFFERENZIAZZIONE. CONTRO ETNOCENTRISMO
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Asians might be seen as "industrious" and blacks as "dirty".
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es
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There also seems to be a not inconsiderable tendency for agreement between the in- and the out-group concerning the characteristics of the in-group.
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x ACCORDO TRA STEREOTIPI
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For instance, Callan & Gallois (1983) found that Anglo-Australians, Greek-Australians and Italian-Australians all showed a high level of agreement that Anglo-Australians were "sportsmanlike", "happy-go-lucky" and "pleasure-loving".
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x ESEMPIO
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this sort of occurrence tends to suggest considerable truth-value
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UN PUNTO X LA VERITÀ
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See also Kippax & Brigden (1977), where Australian and American opinions about one-another and various other nationalities are shown to have a lot in common.
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x ALTRO ESEMPIO
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Gallois, Callan & Parslow (1982) that people who discriminate on ethnic grounds do so in highly differentiated ways.
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x DISCRIMINAZIONE DIFFRENZIATA
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On matters of interest to him (i.e. racial and ethnic matters) the racially discriminatory person is cognitively complex rather than cognitively simple (See also Ray, 1972a).
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x RAZZISTA SOFISTICATO
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Are positive stereotypes a good thing?
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Viljoen (1974) found that South African Blacks thought higher of English-speaking whites than they did of themselves yet those same blacks still liked their own group best in other ways. In particular, blacks preferred more social distance from the English-speaking whites than from other blacks. To put it plainly, the blacks thought that the English- speakers were admirable but still did not like the thought of their daughters marrying one.
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x I DANNI DEGLI STEREOTIPI POSITIVI
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A positive stereotype went with greater rather than lesser social distance.
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DISTANZA SOCIALE E STEREO POSITIVI
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Miller (1985)
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Australian schoolchildren (whites) who had large numbers of blacks (Australian Aborigines) in their classes resented black welfare programs most when they had positive stereotypes of blacks.
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x ALTRO ESEMPIO
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Conversely, the people who accepted affirmative action programs uncritically were those whites who thought very poorly of blacks
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c AFF ACT VOLUTA DA CHI PENSA MALE DEI NERI
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The simple idea that positive stereotypes are good and negative stereotypes are bad is thus revealed as an oversimplification.
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x SUPERSEMPLIFICAZIONE
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What goes on in stereotyping?
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Schutz (1932)
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the benign functions of stereotypes
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If you can categorize people, you have to make less effort in order to interact constructively with them.
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x TESI SHUTZ
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Berry (1970) is one of many who concede that stereotypes can indeed have a useful role.
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x ALTRO AUTORE
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stereotypes are an aid in accurately knowing what the key (i.e. different) traits of various groups are.
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x CONOSCENZA
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enabling us to deal with difficult and ambiguous data.
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c
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It is a great human strength that we can make great use of even the tiniest amounts of information.
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x VALORIZZARE L INFO MINIMA
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reduce the uncertainty
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Hamill, Wilson & Nisbett (1980) found that people will generalize from a single instance even when they are specifically told in advance that the instance concerned is an a-typical one.
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x NATURA GENERALIZZANTE
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Doing so, however, does not mean that some rigid mental structure has been adopted. Quite to the contrary, stereotypes are approximations. They are continually modified as information comes in
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x ADATTAMENTO DEGLI STEREOTIPI
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Locksley, Hepburn & Ortiz, 1982)
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show that when a target person is being evaluated by Ss, the provision of case information about that individual target person will substantially reduce the role of stereotypes in the evaluation made of the target person by the Ss.
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x UN ESEMPIO
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Galper & Weiss (1975)
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stereotyping was not used where the situation was more fully specified
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x ALTRO CASO
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Braithwaite, Gibson & Holman (1985-86)
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stereotyping diminishes as the experimental situation becomes more realistic.
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x ALTRO CASO
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Beyond the point where better information than what is contained in the stereotype becomes available, however, the stereotype is steadily abandoned as a guide to action.
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x CONCLUSIONE
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Where stereotypes persist, however, are those situations where specific information will seldom be adequate or available soon enough. For instance, when confronted by an unfamiliar black, a white does not conclude that he has no information to guide him in the interaction. He instead uses his stereotypes
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x ASSENZA INFO
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Thus a white who encounters a large black coming towards him on a dark street late at night will not normally approach the encounter with an empty mind.
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x ANONIMATO E STEREOTIPI
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If, however, the black simply says "Nice day" when he passes, the stereotype will no longer have any role in the interaction and some pleasantry in reply may be uttered.
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x PRESA DI CONTATTO E FINE DELLO STEREO
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Stein, Hardyck & Smith (1965), McCauley, Stitt & Segal (1980) and Bond (1986).
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STUDI A SUPPORTO
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Bayton, McAlister & Hamer (1956).
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These authors described a person to students simply as "black" and got the usual stereotypes back: "dirty", "lazy" etc. They then modified the description to "educated black" and instantly got greatly changed responses. The educated black was in fact described in terms very similar to an educated white.
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x ESEMPIO
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Stereotypes, generalizations and categorization
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the above discussion of stereotypes has attempted no distinction between stereotypes and valid generalizations.
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x GENERALIZZAZIONE VALIDA
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The word "stereotype" seems on many past occasions to have been used as a synonym for any generalization about any group.
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c LA LETTERATURA DÀ X SCVONTATA LA DIFFERENZA
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The implication is that all generalizations in such fields are dangerous. This is, however, a thoroughly unscientific orientation.
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x FALSE IMPLICAZIONI DI UNA CONDANNA DELLO STEREOTIPO
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As it happens, however, this confusion over what is or is not a valid generalization is rendered unimportant by the account of stereotyping given so far in this paper.
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x LA POSIZIONE CORRETTA: NON DISTINGUERE
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Rather, stereotyping is a process of successive approximation towards accurate judgments.
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x DEFINIZIONE ACCVURATA
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The stereotype may start out containing very little in the way of accurate information but as knowledge of and experience with the particular class of person accumulates, the information will become progressively more accurate.
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x BAYES
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(Locksley et al, 1982; Galper & Weiss, 1975; Braithwaite et al, 1985- 86; McCauley et al, 1980; Stein, Hardyck & Smith, 1965).
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x A CONFERMA DI UN PROCESSO BAYESIANO
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Studies which show stereotypes as rigid
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it should be acknowledged that stereotypes are not mindlessly fluid.
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x CONCESSIONE
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Pettigrew, 1979; Johnson & Judd, 1983; Darley & Gross, 1983)
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"attribution error"
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We do not immediately abandon or revise the rule but instead wait until several or maybe many exceptions build up. If blacks are generally seen by whites as lazy, one diligent black man will not disturb that stereotype. "One swallow does not make a summer". If, however, lots of diligent black men are encountered, cognitive change will eventuate (Weber & Crocker, 1983).
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x RAGIONE: UNA RONDINE NN FA PRIMAVERA
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Writers such as Pettigrew simply fail to consider adequately how many exceptions (to a rule) will be tolerated.
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x L ERRORE DEI RIGIDISTI NN BAYESIANI
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Stereotyping is not the cause of racism
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Stereotyping may be involved as a step in the formation of racially antagonistic attitudes but it is involved as a step in the formation of all attitudes.
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x STEREO PRIMO PASSO DI TANTE COSE
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confuse the cause with the process.
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Devine (1989).
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Devine showed that "tolerant" people do not differ in their awareness of stereotypes from non-tolerant people but that the tolerant people deliberately suppress their use of stereotypes.
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x NASCONDIMENTO DI STERE TRA I TOLLERANTI
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Smith, Griffith, Griffith & Steger (1980).
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These authors studied stereotypes of Germans held by American students who had been living in Germany for some time. They found that the students had stereotypes that were realistic and positive and concluded that stereotyping is of little use in explaining racial and ethnic antagonisms.
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x ES STUDIO
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what the alternatives are.
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Perhaps the most hopeful line of enquiry for psychologists, however, may be those theories and findings which portray racial preferences as just another instance of a more general human tendency to prefer the familiar and thus to prefer people who are similar to themselves (Rokeach, 1960; Stein, Hardyck & Smith, 1965; Levine & Campbell, 1972; Liebowitz & Lombardo, 1980; Taylor & Guimond, 1978; Byrne, Clore & Smeaton, 1986; Marin & Salazar, 1985; Ray, 1983).
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x TEORIE ALTERNATIVE DEL RAZZISMO
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DO STEREOTYPES MATTER?
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