lunedì 3 aprile 2017

Il cervello asessuato

Il cervello degli uomini è diverso da quello delle donne. La cosa è vera sia in senso letterale che in senso metaforico.
Approfondiamo la delicata questione accompagnati dal massimo esperto in materio: David Geary. Il suo saggio si intitola “Sex Differences In Folk Psychology”.
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La storia dell’umanità ha registrato una convergenza nelle caratteristiche fisiche del cervello di uomo e donna…
… The reduction in the sex difference in physical size since the australopithecines and the corresponding reduction in the variability across hominid brain volumes make it very likely that the average brain size of our male and female ancestors has converged since the emergence of Homo…
Tuttavia, molte differenze esistono ancora.
Il cervello dell’uomo è più grande e pesante rispetto a quello della donna…
… Pakkenberg and Gundersen (1997) found that in comparison with women’s brains, men’s brains, on average, are 13% heavier, occupy 15% more volume, and contain 16% more neurons, among other differences… M. Leonard et al. (2008) found that the overall brain size of more than 9 out of 10 men was larger than that of the average woman… The 10% male advantage in brain size is found in newborns and continues into childhood, juvenility, and adolescence…
Il cervello maschile ha più materia grigia e bianca (ma solo in senso assoluto)…
… Overall, men have more gray matter (neuronal cell bodies and dendrites that collect information from other cells) and white matter (neuronal axons that transmit information to other cells) than women…
L’area più sviluppata del cervello femminile è quella relativa alle competenze linguistiche…
… The areas of enhanced thickness in women are associated with language skills…
Sulla coesione dei due emisferi la storia è controversa ma sembra che nelle donne sia più presente: l’uomo è più specializzato, la donna più integrata
… One of the more controversial findings concerns the corpus callosum, the bundle of axons that allows communication across the left and right hemispheres. De Lacoste-Utamsing and Holloway (1982) reported that the back portion of the callosum was shaped differently in men and women and that relative to overall brain weight was larger in women. They speculated “that the female brain is less well lateralized—that is, manifests less hemispheric specialization…
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Le relazioni tra ormoni e cervello sono molte e rilevanti. Tra gli ormoni il testosterone spicca per importanza…
… These studies have focused on whether prenatal exposure to testosterone or estrogens (which can be converted to testosterone) results in male-typical patterns of brain organization or functioning…
Come dicevamo prima, il cervello maschile sembra più “specializzato”. Ebbene, le donne mancine e affette da CAH (una patologia contratta per sovraesposizione ormonale) registrano una tipologia vicina a quella maschile…
… More men than women are left-handed, and language and spatial functions tend to be more strongly localized in the left and right hemispheres, respectively, in men and distributed across both hemispheres in women (McGlone, 1980; Witelson, 1976, 1991). Kelso, Nicholls, Warne, and Zacharin (2000) found more left-handers and better nonverbal than verbal abilities for girls and women with CAH…
Le recenti scannerizzazioni FMRI confermano il ruolo parallelo dell’amigdala nei maschi e nelle femmine CAH…
… An intriguing example is provided by a brain imaging study of amygdala activation, which is involved in the processing of emotionally and sexually laden information, when individuals with CAH viewed facial expressions that conveyed neutral and negative affect (i.e., fear or anger; Ernst et al., 2007);…
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Quando una donna pensa a sé pensa al suo ruolo in famiglia…
… When reflecting on or describing themselves (e.g., completing “I am …”), women are more likely than men to view themselves in terms of close relationships with family members or friends, whereas men are more likely to view themselves as members of groups or teams (Gabriel & Gardner, 1999)…
Le donne sono più sensibili ai giudizi sfumati, allusivi, ambigui… e anche più abili nell’usarli…
… girls and women appear to be more aware of nuances in their feelings and emotions than boys and men and have better memories for the details of emotionally charged personal experiences (Barrett, Lane, Sechrest, & Schwartz, 2000)… My interpretation is that girls and women are better able to use awareness of their feelings as a social barometer…
Le donne appaiono più ossessionate dal loro corpo
… In general, girls and women tend to reflect on their behavior and traits more frequently than do boys and men across many domains (Fejfar & Hoyle, 2000), and their bodies are a common area of reflection…
La cosa si giustifica poiché la bellezza è l’elemento chiave nella competizione sessuale tra donne.
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Il linguaggio non verbale (per esempio la lettura dei volti) è una specialità femminile…
… Girls and women are better than boys and men at interpreting and sending nonverbal social messages, including skill at reading emotional states conveyed in facial expressions, gesture, and body language and in generating nuance in the social use of these forms of communication (Buck, Savin, Miller, & Caul,1972; J. A. Hall, 1978, 1984; J. A. Hall & Matsumoto, 2004; McClure, 2000; Rosenthal, Hall, DiMatteo, Rogers, & Archer, 1979; van Beek & Dubas, 2008; Wagner, Buck, & Winterbotham, 1993)…
Non sorprende che l’amigdala (una componente fisica del cervello pesantemente coinvolta in queste funzioni) si presenti differenziata nella donna rispetto all’uomo…
… amygdala is among the core brain systems involved in the processing of emotion-laden information and is structurally and functionally different in women and men (e.g., Goldstein et al., 2001; Kilpatrick et al., 2006)…
Lo stesso dicasi per la corteccia pre-frontale
… After correcting for the sex difference in brain size and size of the frontal cortex, the social–emotional processing areas of the prefrontal cortex are larger in women than in men…
Lo stesso dicasi per i due emisferi cerebrali (più connessioni in quello sinistro per le donne e in quello destro per gli uomini)…
… In addition to the sex differences in proportional size of the amygdala (larger in men) and ventromedial prefrontal cortex (larger in women), these regions are interconnected differently in women and men (Kirkpatrick et al., 2006; Tranel, Damasio, Denburg, & Bechara, 2005). There appears to be greater functional connectivity between these regions in the right hemisphere for men and the left hemisphere for women…
Lo sviluppo dell’amigdala sembra particolarmente sensibile al testosterone, presente in quantità diverse nei corpi di uomini e donne…
… prenatal exposure to male testosterone may bias the later functioning of the amygdala (Ernst et al., 2007), and men’s larger amygdala may be due to the pubertal increase in testosterone (Neufang et al., 2009)…
Sul linguaggio, la differenza non riguarda tanto la loquacità…
… Girls talk more than boys during the first 2 years of life and during the juvenile period (about 10–13 years), but boys may talk more during adolescence (Leaper & Smith, 2004). At…
… quanto la pragmatica: gli uomini sono più assertivi, le donne più sfumate e “relazionali”…
… Pragmatics refers to the use of language in social contexts. Boys and men tend to use language to attempt to assert their social dominance…
vantaggi linguistici della donna sono comunque innumerevoli…
… Relative to boys and men, girls and women have advantages for many basic language-related skills, including the length and quality of utterances (e.g., in their utterances women show standard grammatical structure and a correct pronunciation of language sounds more frequently than do men), the ease and speed of articulating complex words, the ability to generate strings of words, the speed of retrieving individual words from long-term memory, and skill at discriminating basic language sounds from one another (R. A. Block, Arnott, Quigley, & Lynch, 1989; D. F. Halpern, 2000; Hampson, 1990a; Hyde & Linn, 1988; Majeres, 2007)…
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Le donne sembrano più concentrate dell’uomo sui figli, sulla famiglia e sui parenti. La parentela è centrale nelle preoccupazioni femminili.  Lo sguardo maschile è più ad ampio raggio
… women are predicted to invest more in their children than are men, as is the case for mammals in general (Clutton-Brock, 1991). Ample support for this prediction was provided in chapter 6 of this volume…
I maschi però restano curiosamente interessati ai parenti maschi
… A less obvious prediction is that men will show a bias for male kin, especially when their group is engaged in frequent intergroup conflict…
Parlando di socializzazione abbiamo già visto come i gruppi maschili funzionino meglio, mentre quelli femminili tendono a disgregarsi: le femmine si appassionano di più al rapporto due a due.
Tuttavia, gli uomini registrano una maggiore intolleranza per gli omosessuali maschili…
… I assume gay men are discriminated against by other men because of an implicit assumption that gay men’s contributions to male–male coalitional competition will be limited; whether this is the case remains to be determined…
Forse perché si tratta di soggetti poco interessati all’alleanza guerresca.
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E le relazioni con lo straniero? E nel tessere alleanze con i gruppi avversari, cosa differenzia uomo e donna? 
Le donne sembrano più abili quando i gruppi sono di pari forza, gli uomini a trattare una pace cooperante in caso di guerra asimmetrica…
… intergroup cooperation was lower for men but not for women when the ingroup and the outgroup were equally matched (L. E. Davis et al., 1996)…
Congettura: la donna è fondamentalmente disinteressata allo straniero anonimo, nel senso anche che lo combatte con più riluttanza se non minaccia la sua famiglia (è difficile che una donna si presti, per esempio, ad uccidere uno sconosciuto premendo un bottone). ma il suo fondamentale disinteresse puo’ essere prezioso quando l’uomo va in crisi perché coinvolto in una situazione di stallo (parità di forze).
E per quanto riguarda l’identificazione sociale (esempio, patriottismo)? Gli uomini sembrerebbero più sensibili anche se le donne, almeno se toccate dal conflitto, partecipano poi con grande spirito…
… social identification enables the formation of larger and therefore more competitive social groups, and one of the core selection pressures for the establishment and maintenance of large competitive groups is coalitional male–male competition… If this hypothesis is correct, then social identification with competitive groups (e.g., a sports team, a nationality) should be more easily instantiated in men than in women…
Ad ogni modo, almeno nel caso del patriottismo, le similitudini sono più numerose che le differenze.
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Le donne sembrano più attratte dalla flora di un ambiente. Berlin, Boster, e O’Neill hanno studiato gli Aguaruna, una popolazione che vive nel nord del Perù…
… women showed more agreement among themselves about the classification of these species, showed greater complexity in their overall classification system, and had more nuanced knowledge about individual species…
Altro caso che conferma la maggior competenza femminile in fatto di fiori e frutti…
… In a study of the Paniya and Kuruma tribes in India, Cruz García (2006) found that mothers were more knowledgeable of local plants than fathers and passed this folk biological knowledge to their children; children also learn from other adults and from peers (Setalaphruk & Price, 2007)…
In Brasile, idem…
… Bay region of Brazil, women showed greater knowledge of medicinal plants than did men…
Sulla fauna le competenze si invertono…
… Given men’s greater participation in hunting in traditional societies, it is not surprising that they have more complex knowledge of local fauna than do women…
Se si racconta di animali pericolosi i ragazzini si eccitano molto più delle ragazzine…
… In support of the predicted developmental sex difference, there is some indication that boys attend to potentially dangerous and wild animals more often than do girls and know more about these animals (Blurton Jones, Hawkes, & O’Connell, 1997; Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1989; Setalaphruk & Price, 2007)…
La sperimentazione dà non poche conferme di queste inclinazioni  anche per le società moderne (dove ragazze e ragazzi vivono in un ambiente urbano impoverito di flora e fauna)…
… For normal adults, McKenna and Parry (1994) found that women were better at naming fruits and vegetables and men were better at naming animals, but other studies have not found this sex difference (Barbarotto et al., 2002); men are better at naming tools, however (see the section titled Tool Use later in this chapter)…
La spiegazione evoluzionista è quasi banale: gli uomini cacciano le donne raccolgono.
E in effetti, quando passeggio con le mie bimbe raramente posso tornare a casa senza aver raccolto un mazzolin di fiori. Non penso che con dei maschietti sarebbe la stessa cosa (probabilmente tortureremo ragni e lucertole)…
Detto questo l’origine dei divide, a livello fisiologico, resta abbastanza misterioso…
… At this point, scientists do not know enough to draw firm conclusions about the origin of the sex differences in folk biological competencies…
Si deve ripiegare su un generico “attentional bias” che emerge da una combinazione fisiologica (cervello+ormoni) difficile da ricostruire…
… I suspect the differences arise from the combination of sex differences inherent in attentional and interest biases and corresponding sex differences in engagement with the biological world. The tendency of boys to attend to wild and potentially dangerous animals more frequently than girls might reflect such an attentional bias, and their play hunting, a corresponding activity that would eventually result in a sex difference favoring men, might result in knowledge of local fauna (Blurton Jones et al., 1997; Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1989)…
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Nel valutare gli oggetti in movimento i maschi, che, oltre ad essere più sensibili agli oggetti in generale, sono più sensibili al “dove” rispetto al “cosa”, restano avvantaggiati…
… I return to G. M. Alexander’s (2003) hypothesis about the development of the where as contrasted with the what stream of the visual system (see the section titled Infancy, chap. 10, this volume), specifically, that prenatal and early postnatal exposure to testosterone may enhance aspects of the development and functioning of the where system and result in a sex difference favoring boys in interest in object motion…
Anche per questo prevalgono nel rintracciare in laboratorio gli oggetti in movimento improvvisamente occultati…
… sex differences in the detection of objects obscured in a complex visual scene, detecting and tracking the movement of objects in physical space, and skill at behaviorally reacting to these moving objects (Law et al., 1993; Peters, 1997; Schiff & Oldak, 1990)…
Nelle prove su oggetti in movimenti gli uomini hanno vantaggi visuali mentre le donne si affidano ad altri sensi che in loro sono più sviluppati…
… Men show several advantages in the visual system, even though women have more sensitive sensory systems in the areas of touch, smell, taste, and some aspects of hearing…
L’unico parametro visuale in cui la donna a volte prevale è il colore
… About 8% of men have varying degrees of color blindness, that is, they are poor at discriminating colors in the red–green spectrum; about 2% of men cannot discriminate red from green at all (Nathans, Piantanida, Eddy, Shows, & Hogness, 1986). Discrimination of red from green appears to be an evolved feature of the primate visual system that supports the detection of fruit and other colorful foods (Shyue et al., 1995), and thus these men should be at an evolutionary disadvantage…
Gli uomini sono più abili nell’identificare velocità e traiettoria
… Men also show advantages in the ability to judge the velocity and trajectory of a moving object, generate visual images of a moving object, estimate when an object moving directly toward them will hit them, and hit a moving object with a thrown projectile (Pavio & Clark, 1991; Schiff & Oldak, 1990)…
I ragazzi sono più abili nell’intercettare, mirare e colpire bersagli in movimento. nelle “uscite” i portieri donna sono disastrosi…
… As I mentioned in chapter 10 of this volume (in the section titled Physical Competencies), boys and men have a very large advantage over same-age girls and women in throwing distance, velocity, and accuracy (Thomas & French, 1985)…
I ragazzi sono più abili nel dominare la rotazione spaziale, le ragazze identificano meglio gli oggetti in uno spazio specifico…
… Men typically outperform women on tests that involve the representation and mental rotation of images in three-dimensional space (see Figure 13.2), and women outperform men on some memory tasks…
I ragazzi sono più abili nel generare mappe mentali dopo l’esplorazione di un territorio sconosciuto…
… When asked to generate a map after exploring a novel environment, boys’ maps showed more accurate clustering of environmental features and more accurate representations of the geometric relations—cardinal direction (e.g., Building A is northwest of Building B)—among these features (Matthews, 1992)…
In un ambiente nuovo è più facile che le donne prendano a riferimento cippi e costruzioni (immobili) mentre gli uomini strade (direzionate) e punti cardinali (astrazioni)…
… Boys and girls also differed in the extent to which they focused on landmarks (e.g., specific buildings) or routes (e.g., roadways) in their maps. In this study and others, girls have been found to attend more to landmarks and relative direction (Building A is left of Building B) and boys to routes and cardinal direction (see also J. Choi & Silverman, 2003)…
Le ragazze sono più abili nella ricerca di oggetti specifici in un ambiente familiare (tradotto: se non trovi le chiavi dell’auto chiedi alla moglie)…
… Boys’ and men’s advantages in the ability to generate representations of novel environments and to mentally manipulate three-dimensional images stand in sharp contrast to girls’ and women’s advantages in certain forms of visuospatial memory (Eals & Silverman, 1994; T. W. James & Kimura, 1997)…
La costruzione e l’uso di strumenti vede gli uomini partire con molti vantaggi…
… tool construction is much more common among men than women across traditional societies (Daly & Wilson, 1983; Murdock, 1981); boys have a better intuitive sense of how to use objects as tools and learn how to use tools more quickly than do girls (Z. Chen & Siegler, 2000; Gredlein & Bjorklund, 2005)…