2 Why Billington Survived

2 Why Billington Survived 1491 (Second Edition): New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus

Charles C. Mann

Note:2@@@@@@@@@@@ da indicizzare fino al segnalibro 1031 poi da leggereil primo contatto tra indiani e colonigli indigeni si alleano a fini militari (x combattere meglio i nemici) non x spirito di amicizial omissione dei reali motivi è sintomatica e nn riguarda solo i testi x bimbidio e la tecnologia c entrarono poco con la sopravvivenza dei primi colonil etnocentrismo sembra universale: entrambe le parti si credevano superiorile tende indiane: tutt altro che primitivei givani indiani: bamboccionila proprietà: c era eccome... veniva poco utilizzata ma c erail capo: si votava coi piedile battaglie rrano più che altro risse... prima degli europei: una rissa continua tra tribufisicamente gli indiani erano più prestanti di noi... nn hanno conosciuto carestie o epidemie

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2@@@@@@@@@@@

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THE FRIENDLY INDIAN
Note:T

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They encouraged the exchange of goods, but would only allow their visitors to stay ashore for brief, carefully controlled excursions.
Note:la politica degli indiani nei confronti dei bianchi

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Now Massasoit was visiting a group of British with the intent of changing the rules. He would permit the newcomers to stay for an unlimited time—provided they formally allied with the Wampanoag against the Narragansett.
Note:alcune tribù sfruttano l'aiuto dei bianchi nei loro conflitti interni

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A friendly Indian named Squanto helped the colonists. He showed them how to plant corn and how to live on the edge of the wilderness. A soldier, Captain Miles Standish, taught the Pilgrims how to defend themselves against unfriendly Indians.
Note:come la etorica scolastica ha ridotto l'incontro tra indiani e bianchi

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Winslow didn’t know that fish fertilizer may not have been an age-old Indian custom, but a recent invention—if it was an Indian practice at all. So little evidence has emerged of Indians fertilizing with fish that some archaeologists believe that Tisquantum actually picked up the idea from European farmers.
Note:l'idea del pesce come fertilizzante

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omission is symptomatic of the complete failure to consider Indian motives, or even that Indians might have motives. The alliance Massasoit negotiated with Plymouth was successful from the Wampanoag perspective, for it helped to hold off the Narragansett.
Note:l'omissione fondamentale dei testi storici canonici

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This variant of Holmberg’s Mistake dates back to the Pilgrims themselves, who ascribed the lack of effective native resistance to the will of God. “Divine providence,” the colonist Daniel Gookin wrote, favored “the quiet and peaceable settlement of the English.” Later writers tended to attribute European success not to European deities but to European technology.
Note:c'è un errore opposto ovvero considerare la resa indiana una volontà Divina

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“Indians were seen as trivial, ineffectual patsies,” Salisbury, a historian emeritus at Smith College, told me. “But that assumption—a whole continent of patsies—simply didn’t make sense.”
Note:gli indiani non erano considerati un popolo arretrato e barbaro

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The fall of Indian societies had everything to do with the natives themselves, researchers argue, rather than being religiously or technologically determined.
Note:le cause della sconfitta indiana

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When native met newcomer, both groups tried to benefit, as people will. In almost every case, each side believed itself to be superior—ethnocentrism seems to be a near-universal human quality—and
Note:i due gruppi si ritenevano entrambi superiori

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Tisquantum was not an Indian. True, he belonged to that category of people whose ancestors had inhabited the Western Hemisphere for thousands of years.
Note:l'amico indiano non era affatto un indiano

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As Tisquantum’s later history made clear, he regarded himself first and foremost as a citizen of Patuxet,

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lui stesso non si riteneva tale

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Ten thousand years ago, when Indians in Mesoamerica and Peru were inventing agriculture and coalescing into villages, New England was barely inhabited, for the excellent reason that it had been covered until relatively recently by an ice sheet a mile thick.
Note:il Nord America una periferia dell'Impero

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The ancestral language may derive from what is known as the Hopewell culture. Around two thousand years ago, Hopewell jumped into prominence from its bases in the Midwest, establishing a trade network that covered most of North America. The Hopewell culture introduced monumental earthworks and, possibly, agriculture to the rest of the cold North.
Note:la prima cultura del Nord America di cui abbiamo traccia

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Nor did the English regard the Dawnland wetu as primitive; its multiple layers of mats, which trapped insulating layers of air, were “warmer than our English houses,”
Note:gli indiani non erano considerati dei primitivi dai coloni

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Europeans bemoaned the lack of salt in Indian cuisine, they thought it nourishing. According to one modern reconstruction, Dawnland diets at the time averaged about 2,500 calories a day, better than those usual in famine-racked Europe.
Note:abitazioni e cucina indiane erano ammirate e limitate anche dai coloni

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Wampanoag families were close and loving—more so than English families, some thought. Europeans in those days tended to view children as moving straight from infancy to adulthood around the age of seven, and often thereupon sent them out to work. Indian parents, by contrast, regarded the years before puberty as a time of playful development, and kept their offspring close by until marriage.
Note:famiglia presso gli indiani

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The primary goal of Dawnland education was molding character. Men and women were expected to be brave, hardy, honest, and uncomplaining.
Note:pedagogia indiana

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When Indian boys came of age, they spent an entire winter alone in the forest,
Note:cccccc

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To master the art of ignoring pain, future pniese had to subject themselves to such miserable experiences as running barelegged through brambles.
Note:dominare il dolore

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(Dawnlanders lived in a loose scatter, but they knew which family could use which land—“very exact and punctuall,” Roger Williams, founder of Rhode Island colony, called Indian care for property lines.)
Note:il sistema della proprietà

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sachems had to gain the consent of their people, who could easily move away and join another sachemship. Analogously, the great sachems had to please or bully the lesser, lest by the defection of small communities they lose stature.
Note:gli indiani potano con i piedi

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In consequence, boundaries between groups were becoming more formal. Sachems, given more power and more to defend, pushed against each other harder. Political tensions were constant.
Note:cresce il numero degli indiani cominciano le prime tensioni territoriali

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Armed conflict was frequent but brief and mild by European standards. The casus belli was usually the desire to avenge an insult or gain status,
Note:i conflitti sono numerosi ma poco intensi per lo standard europeo

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Women and children were rarely killed,
Note:cccccc

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Nevertheless, by Tisquantum’s time defensive palisades were increasingly common, especially in the river valleys. Inside the settlement was a world of warmth, family,
Note:warfare indiano

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outside, as Thomas put it, was “a maze of confusing actions and individuals fighting
Note:tutti contro tutti

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TOURISM AND TREACHERY
Note:ttttttttt

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The earliest written description of the People of the First Light was by Giovanni da Verrazzano, an Italian mariner-for-hire commissioned by the king of France in 1523 to discover whether one could reach Asia by rounding the Americas to the north.
Note:il primo a descriverli

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Europeans described the People of the First Light as strikingly healthy specimens.
Note:sani e aitanti

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Because famine and epidemic disease had been rare in the Dawnland, its inhabitants had none of the pox scars or rickety limbs common on the other side of the Atlantic.
Note:poche carestia e poche epidemie

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The Pilgrims were less sanguine about Indians’ multicolored, multitextured mode of self-presentation.
Note:i nostri sempre più malaticcii

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And the hair! As a rule, young men wore it long on one side, in an equine mane, but cropped the other side short, which prevented it from getting tangled in their bow strings.
Note:la grande bellezza dei capelli

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As for the Indians, evidence suggests that they tended to view Europeans with disdain as soon as they got to know them.
Note:il disprezzo delle indiano per il bianco

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With striking uniformity, these travelers reported that New England was thickly settled and well defended.
Note:una terra ben difesa

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THE PLACE OF THE SKULL
Note:ttttttt

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To be sure, the Pilgrims had intended to make most of their livelihood not by farming but by catching fish for export to Britain. But the only fishing gear the Pilgrims brought was useless in New England. Half of the 102 people on the Mayflower made it through the first winter, which to me seemed amazing. How did they survive? In his history of Plymouth colony, Governor Bradford himself provides one answer: robbing Indian houses and graves.
Note:come sono sopravvissuti i padri fondatori?

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The Pilgrims were typical in their lack of preparation. Expeditions from France and Spain were usually backed by the state, and generally staffed by soldiers accustomed to hard living.
Note:i Padri Pellegrini all'avventura

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Huddled in their half-built village that first terrible winter, the colonists rarely saw the area’s inhabitants, except for the occasional shower of copper- or claw-tipped arrows. After February, glimpses and sightings became more frequent. Scared, the Pilgrims hauled five small cannons from the Mayflower and emplaced them in a defensive fortification. But after all the anxiety, their first contact with Indians went surprisingly easily. Within days Tisquantum came to settle among them. And then they heard his stories.
Note:primi contatti tra i padri e gli indiani

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The Indians’ appearance in this European city surely caused a stir. Not long before, Shakespeare had griped in The Tempest that the populace of the much bigger city of London “would not give a doit [a small coin] to a lame beggar, [but] will lay out ten to see a dead Indian.” Hunt managed to sell only a few of his captives before local Roman Catholic priests seized the rest—the Spanish Church vehemently opposed brutality toward Indians. (In 1537 Pope Paul III proclaimed that “Indians themselves indeed are true men” and should not be “deprived of their liberty” and “reduced to our service like brute animals.”)
Note:gli indiani in Europa. Il fenomeno da baraccone. L'opposizione cattolica ad ogni brutalità.

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the Europeans carried a disease, and they bequeathed it to their jailers. Based on accounts of the symptoms, the epidemic was probably of viral hepatitis, according to a study by Arthur E. Spiess, of the Maine Historic Preservation Commission, and Bruce D. Spiess, of the Medical College of Virginia.
Note:la strage. I prigionieri europei erano malati. Probabilmente si trattava di epatite. il contagio fu terribile nelle sue conseguenze

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In their panic, the healthy fled from the sick, carrying the disease with them to neighboring communities.
Note:cccccccc

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The religious overtones in Morton’s metaphor are well placed. Neither the Indians nor the Pilgrims had our contemporary understanding of infectious disease. Each believed that sickness reflected the will of celestial forces.
Note:la mancanza di nozioni sulla viralità scatenò interpretazioni di carattere religioso

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Until the sickness Massasoit had directly ruled a community of several thousand and held sway over a confederation of as many as twenty thousand. Now his group was reduced to sixty people
Note:Il prima è il dopo. Sintesi, dapprima gli indiani si alleano con gli europei in cerca di alleanze strumentali ai loro conflitti interni. La strage avviene a causa dell'epatite portata da alcuni francesi

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The Pilgrims held similar views. Governor Bradford is said to have attributed the plague to “the good hand of God,” which “favored our beginnings” by “sweeping away great multitudes of the natives … that he might make room for us.”
Note:l'interpretazione della strage. Il nostro Dio ci favorisce. È la stessa interpretazione degli indiani medesimi

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The epidemic, Gorges said, left the land “without any [people] to disturb or appease
Note:l'epidemia lascia un territorio deserto da conquistare

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Now he told the Pilgrims that he was willing to leave them in peace (a bluff, one assumes, since driving them away would have taxed his limited resources). But in return he wanted the colonists’ assistance with the Narragansett.
Note:altra richiesta di aiuto da parte dei capi indiani per combattere i loro nemici. Ora vogliono le nostre pistole.

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Contemporary research suggests that indigenous peoples in New England were not technologically inferior to the British—or, rather, that terms like “superior” and “inferior” do not readily apply to the relationship between Indian and European technology. Guns are an example. As Chaplin, the Harvard historian, has argued, New England Indians were indeed disconcerted by their first experiences with European guns: the explosion and smoke, the lack of a visible projectile. But the natives soon learned that most of the British were terrible shots, from lack of practice—their guns were little more than noisemakers. Even for a crack shot, an unrifled, early seventeenth-century gun had fewer advantages over a longbow than may be supposed.
Note:un luogo comune da sfatare. La superiorità tecnologica degli Europei. È vero, le pistole fecero da prima impressione agli indiani ma si rivelarono ben presto solo degli aggeggi molto rumorosi e poco pratici.

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At the same time, Europeans were impressed by American technology. The foreigners, coming from a land plagued by famine, were awed by maize, which yields more grain per acre than any other cereal. Indian moccasins were so much more comfortable and waterproof than stiff, moldering English boots that when colonists had to walk for long distances their Indian companions often pitied their discomfort and gave them new footwear. Indian birchbark canoes were faster and more maneuverable
Note:d'altro canto gli europei stupirono per la tecnologia indiana. Il mais, i mocassini, e molto altro

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the stunned British eagerly exchanged knives and guns for Indian canoes.
Note:gli europei scambiarono ben volentieri i loro coltelli e le loro pistole con le pratiche canoe indiane

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Massasoit, if this interpretation is correct, was trying to incorporate the Pilgrims into the web of native politics. Not long before Massasoit had expelled foreigners who stayed too long in Wampanoag territory.
Note:gli indiani vedevano gli europei come un'ennesima tribù con cui allenarsi

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MACHINATIONS
Note:tttttttt

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In the next decade tens of thousands of Europeans came to Massachusetts. Massasoit shepherded his people through the wave of settlement, and the pact he signed with Plymouth lasted for more than fifty years. Only in 1675 did one of his sons, angered at being pushed around by colonists’ laws, launch what was perhaps an inevitable attack. Indians from many other groups joined in. The conflict, brutal and sad, tore through New England. The Europeans won. Indeed, after the war Massachusetts sold more than a thousand Indians into slavery—perhaps one out of every ten native adults in the region. Most went to the Caribbean, but a few ended up as far away as North Africa.
Note:il patto tra coloni e indiani durò 15 anni. Fu infine rotto dagli indiani che scatenarono una guerra vinta dagli europei. I vincitori schiavizzarono i vinti e li vendettero spedendoli soprattutto ai Caraibi e in Africa

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The historian Alan Gallay has estimated that between 1670 and 1715 English slavers in the South sold somewhere between thirty and fifty thousand native people.
Note:numeri

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What happened? Europeans won military victories in New England, historians say, partly because they were divided among themselves. Indians were unwilling, too, to match the English tactic of massacring whole villages.
Note:perché i coloni vinsero le loro guerre? Non per la presunta superiorità tecnologica ma per la maggior coesione. Le tribù indiane erano divise e incapaci di coalizzarsi.

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But another, bigger part of the reason for the foreigners’ triumph was that by the 1670s the newcomers outnumbered the natives.
Note:ci fu poi la questione del numero da una certa data in poi gli europei erano superiori anche per numero

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Groups like the Narragansett, which had been spared by the epidemic of 1616, were crushed by a smallpox epidemic in 1633.
Note:infine un ruolo fondamentale continuarono ad averlo le epidemie

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Their societies were destroyed by weapons their opponents could not control and did not even know they had.
ccccccc

1. Bootleggers and Baptists: A Winning Coalition

Bootleggers & Baptists: How Economic Forces and Moral Persuasion Interact to Shape Regulatory Politics

Adam Smith and Bruce Yandle

Last annotated on Thursday September 7, 2017

67 Highlight(s) | 67 Note(s)

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1. Bootleggers and Baptists: A Winning Coalition
Note:1@@@@@@@@@

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“Baptists question Amazon porn sales, oppose tax break.”
Note:I MORALISTI CONTRO L INSEDIAMENTO FISCALMENTE AGEVOLATO DI AMAZON IN SUD CAROLINA

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Baptist leaders rallied in opposition to the tax break—and to Amazon’s presence—spurred by moral concerns about unrated videos sold by the website,
Note:ccccccc

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These seemingly disparate forces—Baptist leaders; major retailers Walmart, Best Buy, and Target; and small Main Street retailers—worked in tandem to vehemently oppose the tax exemption.
Note:IMPROBABILE ALLEANZA

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The Bootlegger/Baptist label is now applied to a wide variety of regulatory episodes where the term “Bootlegger” no longer implies illegal action but rather applies to political action in pursuit of narrow economic gains.
Note:L ORIGINE DELLA DIADE: IL PROIBIZIONISMO SUPPORTATI SIA DAI MOTALISTI CHE DAI CONTRABBANDIERI

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The Bootlegger/Baptist Dynamic
Note:tttttttttt

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The theory describes how special interest groups acquire gains through the political process,
Note:L ALLEANZA IDEOLOGIA INTERESSE

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Bootlegger/Baptist theory tells a story of how public interest justification greases the rails for purely private pursuits.
Note:RETORICA DELL INTERESSE PUBBLICO

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clothed in public interest garb
Note:TRAVESTIMENTO

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situations where businesspersons were joined by clergy and others who wrapped the political enterprise in an attractive moral cloak,
Note:SOTTO LA TONACA

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London weavers exploited a stricture contained in the Magna Carta to gain an advantage over foreign competition
Note:IL CASO DEI TESSITORI

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“Great Charter” established uniform measures of ale, grain, cloth, and other goods to facilitate trade—a classic case of consumer protection
Note:ccccccccc

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London weavers paid a bribe to local enforcement agents to avoid having the standard enforced on themselves but demanded that it be scrupulously applied to traveling merchants
Note:APPLICAZIONE DOSOMOGENEA

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Bootlegger firms may covertly advance Baptist arguments, as when film studios advocate for more stringent copyright protection by invoking either the moral claims of artists to remuneration or the promise of increased creativity and innovation
Note:INDUSTRIA CINEMATOGRAFICA

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Bootleggers fund Baptists to bolster support for the political outcome both desire.
Note:FINANZIAMENTI

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The Rising Tide of Social Regulation
Note:tttttttt

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FEDERAL REGISTER PAGES PER REAL GDP DOLLAR
Note:MISURA DELLA MASSA DI REGOLE... ESPLOSIONE

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Old-style regulation focused on single industries, yielding a natural constituency of regulated firms that sought to influence outcomes. Social regulation affected all industries.
Note:REGOLE ECONOMICHE OLD STYLE E REGOLE SOCIALI

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Throttling GDP Growth
Note:ttttttttt

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some call “regulatory capitalism,” what others might call crony capitalism,
Note:CAPITALISMO SELVAGGIO CAPITALISMO MAFIOSO

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scholarship on the matter leaves no doubt that regulation has taken a toll on the economy.
Note:PEDAGGIO PER LA CRESCITA

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Regulating the Regulators
Note:tttttttt

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Very few scholars in the early 1970s and 1980s saw federal regulation as a way to serve private interests. Adam Smith’s warning was not heeded.
Note:LA TOPICA DEGLI STUDIOSI

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Four Modes of Bootlegger/Baptist Interaction
Note:tttttt

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Covert Strategy
Note:ttttttt

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Restrictions on trade, for instance, tend to protect domestic producers from foreign competition at the expense of consumers—but saying so overtly is a poor way to win political support for such measures.
Note:CERTE CAUSE NN POSSONO ESSERE RESE PUBBLICHE

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The items, he said, “[were] made of very inferior materials and are manufactured in a manner calculated to deceive rather than serve the consumer” (Yafa 2005, 107).
Note:LOTTA CONTRO IL COTONE NDIANO... INTERESSE PUBBLICO E PROFITTO

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Baptist arguments were to be found on both sides. Supporters of the law condemned overseas file lockers for enriching themselves at the expense of American artists,
Note:LEGGE ANTINAPSTER... ARGOMENTO MORALISTA CHE COPRE INTERESSI

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Noncooperative Strategy
Note:tttttttttt

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often the shifting sands of economic interests bring Bootleggers in as latecomers to long-standing moral crusades, thereby providing Baptists with the decisive boost they need to achieve their aims.
Note:LA SPINTARELLA INCONFESSABILE DATA AI MORALISTI

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Howard Marvel
Note:ggggg

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England’s Factory Act of 1833,
Note:UNALEGGE NEL SETTORE TESSILE

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banned the use of child workers under 9 years of age, and restricted hours and work conditions for those under 18.
Note:ccccccc

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Prominent members of England’s landed aristocracy had long sought to bring cotton mills under the protective wing of government, without success.
Note:FALLIMENTO QUANTO LA LEGGE ERA CHIESTA DAI LATIFONDISTI

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new manufacturing plants was being driven by steam engines rather than by water wheels. The newer steam-driven plants required less labor
Note:TESSITURE MECCANIZZATE E NO

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The older plants were thus seen as abusive
Note:LOTTA X LA DICHIARAZIONE DI ABUSIVISMO

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the factory districts supported the new Factory Act,
Note:L IMPEGNO DELLE TESSITURE MECCANIZZATE

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Booth’s newly organized Salvation Army was working to improve the lives and save the souls of the city’s downtrodden (Hattersley 1999). This time, instead of Bootleggers and Baptists, Methodists and brewers formed the coalition opposing Booth’s efforts.
Note:COALIZIONE CONTRO L ESERCITO DELLE SALVEZZA

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more traditional churches felt threatened by this new competition from Booth and his unconventional methods,
Note:LE MOTIVAZIONI DEI METODISTI

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Methodist bishops and other religious leaders struggled to shut down the army’s successful efforts to attract members and funds for its growing enterprise.
Note:COMPETIZIONE RELIGIOSA

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Salvation Army preachers were jailed for disturbing the peace with their sermons and music,
Note:TURBAMENTO ORDINE PUBBLICO

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In spite of the opposition, Booth’s strategy gained momentum—and eventually the support of wealthy philanthropists.
Note:LOTTA X I FONDI DEI FILANTROPI

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Efforts to regulate the Salvation Army,
Note:TACITARE CN LE REGOLE... BIRRAI E METODISTI... ALLEANZA NN DICHIARABILE

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Cooperative Strategy
Note:ttttttttt

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Walmart was a crucial supporter of President Obama’s Affordable Care Act, which requires the mega-retailer’s competitors to pony up health benefits as well.
Note:ALLEANZA WALMART OBAMA... PER COSTRINGERE I COMPETITOR AD UNIFORMARSI AGLI ALTI STANDARD

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Like Walmart, the union was interested in raising the costs of its competitor—nonunion labor.
Note:I SINDACATI SI ACCODANO

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forming their own Baptist groups or merely funding Baptist efforts already under way, Bootleggers
Note:STRATEGIA COOPERATIVA

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Chesapeake Corporation is one of the nation’s most innovative and successful natural gas producers. It, too, would like to see coal displaced by gas. Chesapeake made a $26 million donation to the Sierra Club to help fund an attack on coal directed to the EPA, with Sierra leading the charge (Martosko 2012).
Note:LA GURRA CARBONE E GAS

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Coordinated Strategy
Note:tttttttt

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The fourth and final category of Bootlegger/Baptist interactions involves political actors—often presidents—taking the initiative to yoke together interest groups
Note:COORDINAZIONE POLITICA

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The 2008 credit-market meltdown brought with it the collapse and taxpayer bailout of Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac;
Note:LA CRISI FINANZIARE... NECESSITÀ DI ESPANDERE GLI AFFARI

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In 1995, a new interest group emerged, dedicated to expanding government efforts to help Americans purchase homes: the NHS, which we mentioned in our last section as an example of a Baptist group
Note:NHS COME ASSOCIAZIONE MORALISTA

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The NHS coalition was not a winning one, however, because it had no true Baptists. But this oversight was addressed as quickly as one could say “homeownership.”
Note:IL DIRITTO ALLA CASA

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With strong private-sector support, President William J. Clinton called on Freddie Mac and Fannie Mae to reduce their lending standards and greatly expand mortgage lending for families,
Note:LE RICHIESTE DI CLINTON

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even as regulators warned that “subprime lenders were saddling borrowers with mortgages they could not afford, the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) helped fuel more of that risky lending” (Leonnig 2008).
Note:PRESTARE PRESTARE PRESTARE Clinton e le pressioni della politica come origine della crisi finanziaria del 2007

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Final Thoughts
Note:ttttttt

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the extraordinary 1970–80 regulatory period, when the new social regulatory agencies were first emerging,
Note:periodo straordinario di crescita a valanga della regolamentazione

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The goals of social regulation were, more often than not, the goals of interest groups that included civic and religious organizations
Note:il ruolo delle lobby nell 'esplosione delle regole no. Lobby che comprendono anche organizzazioni religiose eccetera

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“Where appropriate and permitted by law, each agency may consider (and discuss qualitatively) values that are difficult or impossible to quantify, including equity, human dignity, fairness, and distributive impacts” (White House 2011).
un esempio di direttiva vaga che lascia campo libero alla burocrazia

Chapter 8 The Gods of Cooperation and Competition

Chapter 8 The Gods of Cooperation and Competition
Note:8@@@@@@@@@@@@

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For all its virtues in binding strangers together, religious cooperation is born out of competition and conflict between groups. It is therefore expected that religious cooperation in turn fuels the very conflicts, real or imagined, that are perceived to threaten it. (This is the topic of the next chapter.) This dynamic helps us understand and resolve the seeming paradox that it is the handmaiden both of cooperation within the group and of conflict between groups.
Note:LA RELIGIONE FA COOPERARE IL GRUPPO E LO FA CONFLIGGERE

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groups that happen to have members who acquire traits favoring self-sacrifice and subordinate self-interest for group interests—that is, groups with stronger social solidarity—will tend to win out.
Note:SACRIFICIO DI SÈ

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Religion returns to center stage, not as a theological explanation of purpose or order, but as itself a product of evolution that enables groups to function as adaptive units—at least to a degree.
Note:SLOAN WILSON... LA RELIGIONE COME PRODOTTO EVOLUTIVO

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In an ambitious cross-cultural investigation spanning 33 nation-states, Michele Gelfand and her colleagues measured something related to social solidarity. They looked at the degree to which nations are “tight”—that is, do they have strict social norms that apply to many situations? How important is conformity to these norms? How much deviation from norms is tolerated and do people get punished for violating these norms?
Note:GELFAND: ALTRUISMO E GUERRA

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they found that, all else being equal, conflict a hundred years ago increased the odds of strict norm-enforcement today. Tighter nations were also more religious—and that makes sense too if world religions are a group-mobilizing force.
Note:IL NUMERO DI GUERRE PREGRESSE PREVEDE LA RELIGIOSITÀ... LA RELIGIOSITÀ INCREMENTA CON IL PERICOLO

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as any observer of team sports fans can see, the “cooperate to compete” instinct is particularly strong among that segment of the population that likes war: young men.
Note:FANATICI E ALTRUISTI

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Richard Sosis and his colleagues looked at this issue from a different angle.
Note:SOSIS... PIÙ GUERRA PIÙ RITUALI

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they found that the greater the participation in warfare, the more likely there are costly rites for males.
Note:ccccccc

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Sosis sees these painful rites as costly behaviors that signal group commitment. He points out that ritual scarification and violence create male solidarity, which keeps freeriding during warfare under control.
Note:cccccc

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As Scott Atran explains, seemingly irrational tendencies make for stronger groups that can outdo their more rational, self-interested rivals:
Note:RITI IRRAZIONALI... RITI COSTOSI IMPEGNO PIÙ GARANTITO

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Seen in this light, it is not surprising that prosocial religions have been a major force shaping human history. When intergroup rivalries are strong, prosocial religious groups, with their Big Gods and loyalty practices that promote social solidarity, could have a competitive edge over rival groups.
Note:MONOTEISMO... GRUPPI PIÙ ESTESI E POTENTI

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Building Moral Communities of Strangers
Note:tttttttt

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As Jonathan Haidt shows, much of morality is rooted in social intuitions in the service of gluing individuals together to form “sacred” communities.
Note:MORALITÀ E COESIONE

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As Haidt recognizes, not all moral systems are religious, and not all religions are moral systems, but some religious systems—those that have prosocial consequences—have been moral systems throughout time.
Note:RELIGIONE E MORALE

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They found that the stronger an individual expressed religious belief and reported high levels of religious participation, the more likely he or she condemned moral transgressions.
Note:QUENTIN ATKINSON... RELIGIOSITÀ E TRASGRESSIONE MORALE

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These findings complement results by Shariff and Rhemtulla discussed earlier, who found, all else being equal, lower crime rates in nations with stronger belief in hell than heaven.
Note:CRIMINE E RELIGIOSITÀ

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Morality without God
Note:ttttttttt

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This does not mean, of course, that religion is necessary for morality. No doubt core human moral instincts evolved long before religions spread in human groups.
Note:LA MORALITÀ PRECEDE LA RELIGIONE

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Kiley Hamlin, Karen Wynn, and Paul Bloom have found that moral-like judgments can be found even in preverbal babies: by six months of age, they show a preference for an individual who helps and an aversion to an individual who obstructs someone else’s goal.
Note:BAMBINI

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Even our primate cousins have vestiges of moral instincts. A long line of research by primatologist Frans de Waal and his colleagues shows capacities for emotional contagion, consolation, and grief in chimpanzees.
Note:MORALITÀ E SCIMMIE

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We do not need religion to be moral beings. But moral communities of strangers may not have evolved as readily without religions with Big Gods.
Note:IL PROBLEMA DELLO STRANIERO... COME LO AFRONTA LA RELIGIONE

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Intergroup Competition and Warfare
Note:tttttttt

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There is no shortage of evidence in the historical and ethnographic record showing that violent and nonviolent conflict has been endemic to human existence.18 In fact, one driver of large group size in cultural evolution is the intensity of between-group competition for resources and habitats. For example, in the 186 societies of the Standard Cross-Cultural Sample (discussed earlier), prevalence of conflict among societies, resource-rich environments, group size, and Big Gods all go together. In places with rich natural resources, there is more intergroup conflict, larger groups, and watchful gods.
Note:CONFLITTI GRANDI GRUPPI E BIG GOD SONO CORRELATI

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one possibility is that conflict over resources led to competition and political expansion of victorious groups, which in turn festered more conflict at the peripheries of these expanding empires. One argument is that these were precisely the antecedent conditions that gave rise to politically centralized states. As Charles Tilly puts it, war made states, and states made war.
Note:TILLIS SULLA GUERRA COME ORIGINE DELLO STATO...

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Peter Turchin, who has pioneered the scientific study of historical dynamics, emphasizes that the scaling up of social groups happened predominantly in frontiers of states and empires. He calculated that over 90 percent of preindustrial age mega-empires—defined as unified states covering greater than 1 million square kilometers (or 386,100 square miles)—arose in frontier regions, such as the Eurasian steppes.
Note:TURCHIN E LE FRONTIERE CONFLITUALI COME ORIGINE DELLE RELIGIONI

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this is the old adage that the best way to compete with rivals is to cooperate with allies. Medieval Arab philosopher and historian Ibn Khaldûn, who was a keen observer of the rise and fall of Islamic dynasties in fourteenth-century North Africa, saw social solidarity, which he called asabiya,
Note:VECCHI ADAGI CONFERMATI

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How Prosocial Religions Won in the Game of Intergroup Cultural Competition
Note:tttttttt

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This observation brings us to the idea that prosocial religions, with their group-beneficial norms that suppress selfishness and increase social cohesion, outcompeted their rivals. There are good reasons to think that this process has been driven by cultural—rather than genetic—evolution.
Note:L ALTRUISMO DELLE RELIGIONI È VINCENTE

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Scott Atran and Joseph Henrich summarize the idea this way: Religious beliefs and practices, like group beneficial norms, can spread by competition among social groups in several ways, including warfare, economic production, and demographic expansion. Such cultural representations can also spread through more benign interactions, as when members of one group preferentially acquire behaviors, beliefs, and values from more successful groups. Over historical time, demographic and cultural patterns have favored prosocial religious groups.
Note:ESPANSIONISMO CULTURALE

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Cultural Group Stability
Note:tttttt

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when all is said and done, what matters, in cultural terms, is how well a group weathers storms that might lead to its collapse. World history is littered with the corpses of vast, but short-lived, empires, such as the Assyrian and Mongol conquests that unified large parts of the Middle East and Eurasia, respectively.
Note:IMPORTANZA DELLA STABILITÀ... ESEMPIO DI IMPERI BREVI

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Returning to this study of the group longevity of religious and secular communes in nineteenth-century America, Richard Sosis looked at an ideal case study because these communes operated under difficult conditions, facing various internal and external threats to group stability. Communes that were unable to solve “collective action problems”—overcoming internal disputes, preventing members from defecting to rival groups, surviving droughts, and so on, could not prosper. Indeed, some communes were dissolved soon after they were founded, whereas others flourished. For every year considered in a 110-year span, religious communes were found to outlast secular ones by an average factor of four.
Note:UNA ROBUSTA RELIGIONE STABILIZZA

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The evidence just discussed leads to two key conclusions: (1) differential rates of group survival favor prosocial religious groups; and (2) the combination of belief in supernatural watchers, extravagant displays, and other commitment devices explains the cultural survival advantage of these groups—precisely what would be expected if prosocial religions were “packaged” by cultural evolutionary processes.
Note:CONCLUSIONI

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Neither could genetic group selection easily explain these effects, given the very short time frames (just over a 110 year span) and the fact that variation in nineteenth-century American commune membership is unlikely to be of genetic origin.
Note:I TEMPI DELLA GENETICA NN SPIEGANO ALCUNI FENOMENI... SI RICORRA ALLA SELEZIONE CULTURALE

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Attracting Religious Converts
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In her study of the spread of Islam into Africa, Ensminger argues that Islamic beliefs, supported by powerful displays of faith such as abstaining from alcohol, avoiding pre- and extramarital sex, not consuming pork, and ritual fasting—permitted greater trust, shared rules of exchange, and the use of credit institutions among converted Muslims.26 The spread of Islam in turn facilitated more trade and greater economic success.
Note:ISLAM: FORZA E COMPETIZIONE

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This might come as a surprise to many, but Americans have not been as religious as they are today. Roger Finke and Rodney Stark emphasize the role of religious competition in the dramatic expansion of religiosity in America since 1776.27 Those familiar with American religious movements today know that competition among religious institutions for membership has been a long-time feature of American life.
Note:AMERICA E COMPETIZIONE RELIGIOSA

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Religious Fertility
Note:ttttttttt

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To survive and prosper, religious groups attract followers, induce adherents to reproduce at rates greater than replacement levels, or, as the demographic expansion of the Mormon Church shows, ideally, do both.
Note:LA PROSPERITÀ DEMOGRAFICA APPORTATA DALLARELIGIONE

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The Mormon Church grew, in a time span of just 170 years, from a small group of a few hundred to 15 million followers worldwide. Likewise, Christianity itself grew by leaps and bounds in the Roman Empire, and a once obscure offshoot of Judaism became the state religion of the empire in less than 300 years.
Note:MORMONI ED EBREI

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The cultural success of prosocial religious groups is therefore aided in no small part by their reproductive success,
Note:FERTILITÀ

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Sociologist Eric Kauffman remarks with irony that, in the culture wars between the religious and secular, arguments fly back and forth, yet neither side seems to have noticed the most important trend that may really settle the dispute. He notes: Religious fundamentalists are on course to take over the world through demography. We have embarked on a particular phase of history in which the frailty of secular liberalism will become even more apparent. In contrast to the situation today, the upsurge of fundamentalism will be felt more keenly in the secular West than in developing regions. This is because we are witnessing the historic conjunction of religious fundamentalism and demographic revolution.
Note:KAUFFMAN: L'ARGOMENTO RELIGIOSO È ESSENZIALMENTE DEMOGRAFICO

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A study comparing the fertility rates of European Jews found that the atheists had the lowest birthrate, averaging around 1.5 children per woman (again, below replacement), whereas the religious Jews averaged nearly three, with the Ultra-Orthodox in Israel averaging six to eight children per woman.
Note:EBREI

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Michael Blume explains: Although we looked hard at all available data and case studies back to early Greece and India, we still have not been able to identify a single case of any non-religious population retaining more than two births per woman for just a century. Wherever religious communities dissolved, demographic decline followed suit.
Note:ATEI SENZA FIGLI DA SEMPRE

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It is no accident that religious conservative attitudes on women’s rights, contraception, abortion, and sexual orientation are conducive to maintaining high fertility levels.
Note:RELIGIONE E DIRITTI DELLA DONNA

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it is possible that religious fertility is shaped by a process called gene-culture coevolution.35 Just as the lactose-tolerance allele spread in less than 10,000 years in groups that adopted milk-producing cows, goats, and camels, it is conceivable that prosocial religious beliefs and practices adopted by some groups but not others might have exerted selection pressures on the human gene pool of these groups. This provocative idea is just starting to receive attention.
COEVOLUZIONE CULTURA E GENETICA... IL MIGNOLO DI HENRICH

CHAPTER 16 WHY US? The Secret of Our Success: How Culture Is Driving Human Evolution, Domesticating Our Species, and Making Us Smarter Joseph Henrich

CHAPTER 16 WHY US? The Secret of Our Success: How Culture Is Driving Human Evolution, Domesticating Our Species, and Making Us Smarter

Joseph Henrich

Note:16 @@@@@@@@@@@@

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The first thing to realize is that our species is probably not the only one whose brains and bodies have been shaped by the importance of social learning.
Note:NN SIAMO GLI UNICI A PUNTARE SUL SOCIALE

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In no other living species has this process sparked substantial cumulative cultural evolution
Note:LA NOSTRA UNICITÀ

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The reason why other species haven’t experienced this may lie in a kind of start-up problem.
Note:START UP PROBLEM... X GLI ALTRI

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if we can somehow expand the size and complexity of a species’ cultural repertoire without altering its brain size, then there will be more good adaptive stuff in the world to learn from others.
Note:PRIMO CANALE COEVIL... UN CERVELLO MINUTO RISPETTO AL SAPERE POTENZIALE VALORZZA LO SCAMBIO

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we can somehow lower the costs of bigger brains. These costs are in part actually incurred by the mother, since she has to supply longer periods of care
Note:SECODO CANALE... LA SOCIALITÁ DEVE COMPENSARE LE LUNGHE CURE

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Large, Ground-Dwelling Primates Produce Bigger Cultural Accumulations
Note:tttttt

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Primates evolved hands for eating and hanging around in trees as well as for traveling. But when they descend from the trees to the ground, the possibilities created by having hands open up. For some primates, spending time on the ground—terrestriality—fosters the development of more tool types and more-complex tools, and a greater spread of those skills by social learning.
Note:PIÙ ATTREZZI GIÙ DAGLI ALBERI

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a move out of the trees and onto the ground was well underway by 5 million years ago.
Note:TEMPI

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Predation Favors Larger Groups, Which Favor Greater Cultural Accumulations
Note:BANDE DI CACCIATORI E SOCIALITÁ

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Faced with increased predation, mammals often respond behaviorally by forming larger groups, since there’s safety in numbers.
Note:ASSICURARSI DAGLI ALTRI PREDATORI

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As a by-product of this defensive strategy, larger groups might have caused an increase in the size and complexity of toolkits, skills, and learned bodies of know-how, as larger groups generated, spread, and preserved more innovations and ideas—
Note:cccccccc

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Shifting Environmental Conditions Favor More Social Learning
Note:tttttttt

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Mathematical models of evolutionary processes show that a greater reliance on social learning over individual learning is favored when environments destabilize
Note:AMBIENTI PRECARI RENDONO LA SOCIALITÀ PIÙ CONVENIENTE

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The Sociality-Care Pathway
Note:ttttttt

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To create bigger-brained primates, moms need to invest more time
Note:IL PROBLEMA PER SUPERARE LA SOGLIA

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Chimpanzee moms have to nurse for 5 years, and so have 5 to 6 years between births. The problem is that species who push this too far are more likely to go extinct
Note:ESEMPIO DELLA SCIMMIA

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Pair-Bonding, Social Learning, and Families
Note:tttttttttt

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Increasing group size and social learning about local resources may favor pair-bonding strategies
Note:COME NASCE LA COPPIA? SE TUTTI GLI INDIVIDUI SONO UGUALI IL COMUNISMO DEI FIGLI E' LA REGOLA. LE DIFFERENZE FANNO NASCERE LA NECESSITA' DI RICONOSCERE PER INVESTIRE. DUE POSSIBILI DIFFERENZE: 1) FORZA/VIOLENZA 2) CULTURA - QUANDO LA FORZA E' DIFFERENTE: 1) NEI GRUPPI PICCOLI DOMINA IL MASCHIO ALFA 2) NEI GRUPPI GRANDI (TROPPO RISCHIO PER IL DOMINANTE) LO SCAMBIO E' PIù CONVENIENTE E SI VA' VERSO LE COPPIE.... MA GRUPPI GRANDI SIGNIFICA ANCHE PIU' NECESSITA' DI SOCIAL LEARNING E CULTURA... ULTERIORE SPINTA ALLA DIFFERENZIAZIONE E QUINDI ALLA COPPIA

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as the density of males increases in a group, the payoffs from using dominance go down, since males have to fight off more competitors and keep track of more females.
Note:LA VIOLENZA NN PAGA NELLA COMPETIZIONE SESSUALE DEI GRANDI MASCHI

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in using pair-bonding strategies, males seek to develop ongoing dyadic relationships with females by offering things like meat, protection for her and her offspring, and potentially care for her offspring. In exchange, he gets preferred sexual access
Note:STRATEGIA PAIR BONDING... LA VIOLENZA È USATA X DONARE ALLA FEMMINA ANZICHÈ CONTRO GLI ALTRI MASCHI

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Ngogo chimpanzee
Note:STUDIATI PER IL PASSAGGIO AL PAIR

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Social learning means that males may come with a kind of cultural inheritance that may be of value to females.
Note:OLTRE ALLA FORZA CONTA LA CULTURA

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males have something to offer—local knowledge.
Note:NELLE SCIMMIE SI VA A CASA DEL MASCHIO

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in a large ape group in which females are immigrants, females will benefit from pair-bonding by getting access to local knowledge (along with the usual protection, food, etc.), and males will benefit from pair-bonding by mitigating fierce male-male competition.
Note:CONCLUSIONE

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Pair-bonding in large primate groups will increase the recognition of blood relatives—particularly siblings, half-siblings, fathers, and perhaps fathers’ brothers (uncles).
Note:IL PAIR BONDING FACILITA IL RICONOSCIMENTO

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At some point in all this, females began to evolve what researchers call concealed ovulation, or ovulatory crypsis. In many primates, such as chimpanzees, female bodies unmistakably signal when they are sexually receptive and capable of getting pregnant, sometimes using shiny buttock swellings. This means that once a male has hung around a female long enough, he’ll know her cycle, and thus know when it’s safe to head off to find some more receptive females or build alliances among males.
Note:OVULAZIONE

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If mom expresses kindness toward dad and grooms him, then our young learner feels more positive toward this male as well. If nothing else, daughters may copy mom’s practices of “hanging around dad,” which will put her in contact with her brothers.
Note:COME SI RINFORZA IL PAIR BONDING

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Expanding one’s recognized network of kin also means that learners will now have more opportunities for social learning (arrow T).
Note:PARENTELA E SOCIAL LEARNING

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Help for Mother and the Division of Information
Note:ttttttt

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Detailed studies of alloparental care in eight small-scale societies show that mothers do only about half of the direct child care.
Note:CURE DELLA MAMMA NELLA FAMIGLIA ALLARGATA... PIÙ AIUTO PIÙ POSSIBILITÀ DI INVESTIRE TEMPO... LA PARENTELA CERTA AIUTA

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By contrast, other ape mothers do nearly 100% of the direct care.
Note:SCIMMIE A PARENTELA NON RICONOSCIBILE

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Pair-bonding means that many relatives who previously would have had little or no recognition of their relatedness can now identify and build relationships with each other.
Note:VANTAGGIO DEL SISTEMA A COPPIE

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Greater social learning also means that young parents and alloparents can rapidly tap into the know-how of prior generations
Note:GREATER SOCIAL LEARNING

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Moreover, sophisticated social learning means that various females have incentives to help mom with her offspring
Note:AIUTO ALLA MAMMA

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later in human evolution, alloparenting would have become increasingly influenced by social norms. For example, among Hadza hunter-gatherers, the evolutionary anthropologist Alyssa Crittenden tells of a young girl who was repeatedly scolded because she refused to assist a mother with her baby.
Note:EVOLUZIONE CULTURALE DELL ALLOPARENTING

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those species with more intensive alloparenting are more proactive in helping their group mates.
Note:L ALLOPARENTING RENDRE PIÙ PRO SOCIAL

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The Beginning of Tribes
Note:tttttttt

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Pair-bonds can also socially connect different groups, thereby opening the flow of cultural information and increasing the size and complexity of toolkits by expanding the collective brain
Note:LA COPPIA ALL ORIGINE DELLA TRIBÙ

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Later, once our ancestors began acquiring packages of social norms that prescribe, extend, and reinforce behavioral patterns, pair-bonds transform into marriages, and fathers into dads (see chapter 9
Note:NASCITA DEL MATRIMONIO

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Why Living Apes Haven’t Crossed the Rubicon
Note:ttttttttttt

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Gorillas, for example, do pair-bond but live in single-family groups with only one male and several females. These groups are too small for cumulative cultural evolution.
Note:L HAREM DEI GORILLA... GRUPPI PICCOLI

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orangutans are rather solitary and don’t pair bond, which means that young orangutans often grow up with only their mother to learn from. With little access to others for social learning,
Note:ORANGHI SENZA PARENTELA

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Chimpanzees are more group oriented but have a fission-fusion form of social organization that still means that young chimps mostly hang around their moms.
Note:SCIMPANZÉ... COPPIE ELASTICHE

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chimpanzees really only have access to mom as a model (90% of the time),
Note:ccccc

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narrow evolutionary bridge across the Rubicon I’ve constructed begins with a large ground-dwelling ape who is forced to live in larger groups (by predation) in which at least some members of both sexes have evolutionary incentives to pair-bond.
Note:UNICITÀ DELL UOMO

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bigger brains calibrated to rely on learning from others can’t pay for themselves unless there is already a lot to learn out there in the minds of others.
QUANDO AVERE CERVELLO NPAGA... L ACCESSO ALL ESPERIENZA ALTRUI GRAZIE ALLA PARENTELA