Visualizzazione post con etichetta schiavitù. Mostra tutti i post
Visualizzazione post con etichetta schiavitù. Mostra tutti i post

sabato 12 maggio 2018

COMPRARE SCHIAVI

COMPRARE SCHIAVI
Un modo per essere buoni consiste nel comprare degli schiavi e liberarli, lo consiglia caldamente Nicholas Kristof: in Cambogia e in Sudan lo si puo’ fare per 150 euro al “pezzo”. Ma c’è un inconveniente: l’operazione aumenta il prezzo degli schiavi, e quindi anche il loro numero.
AMAZON.COM
One of America’s most respected economists presents a quirky, incisive romp through everyday life that reveals how you can turn economic reasoning to your advantage—often when you least expect it to be relevant.Like no other economist, Tyler Cowen shows how economic notions—such...

mercoledì 28 febbraio 2018

Argomenti ragionevoli per la reintroduzione della schiavitù

I migliori argomenti per la reintroduzione della schiavitù vengono da una possibile riforma del diritto penale.
Pensate per un attimo allo spreco delle carceri: una massa di gente buttata lì a far niente per anni con una massa di gente che cura la massa di gente buttata lì a far niente. La rieducazione non funziona e la deterrenza nemmeno: a chi interessa capire se la pena è adeguata al danno procurato? A nessuno. In primis non interessa alla vittima che dalla pena dei criminali non guadagna nulla.
Meglio sarebbe un diritto al risarcimento abbinato a lavori forzarti con cui pagarlo. Tale diritto sarà negoziabile: i cittadini lo venderebbero in anticipo a imprese dalla reputazione “spietata” pubblicizzando la cosa. Tali imprese – loro sì - avrebbero tutti gli incentivi per mettere al lavoro i rei rivendicando giuste punizioni.
The extensively revised and updated edition of Steven Landsburg’s hugely popular book, The Armchair Economist—“a delightful compendium of quotidian examples…
AMAZON.COM

mercoledì 8 marzo 2017

Armi & libertà nel movimento di liberazione dei neri afro-americani

Il II emendamento della costituzione americana garantisce ai cittadini il diritto di possedere armi per tutelarsi contro la tirannide: armi disperse, democrazia garantita.
L’europeo medio sente come distante questa mentalità, eppure la storia parla chiaro, anche quella recente: una garanzia del genere è stata decisiva, per esempio, nella lotta dei neri americani per i diritti civili. Ce lo ricorda il bel libro di Charles E. Cobb Jr. “This Nonviolent Stuff'll Get You Killed: How Guns Made the Civil Rights Movement Possible”.
Il periodo centrale della lotta abbraccia i decenni ‘50 e ‘60 del XX secolo.
La scelta non violenta risultava problematica…
… In retaliation, men, women, and children were surrounded by raging mobs or assaulted by helmeted white policemen wielding batons and fire hoses… events shocked the American public and rallied popular support for such historic legislation as the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965…
La dialettica degli scontri vide così mescolarsi nonviolenza e autodifesa
… those gains could not have been achieved without the complementary and still underappreciated practice of armed self-defense…
L’uso della forza garantì la sopravvivenza di molte comunità nere.
L’idea nonviolenta era nuova ed estranea ai più.
La tesi di fondo…
… Simply put: because nonviolence worked so well as a tactic for effecting change and was demonstrably improving their lives, some black people chose to use weapons to defend the nonviolent Freedom Movement….
Testimonianza di Robert P. “Bob” Moses, direttore del “Mississippi project of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee” sulla convivenza di stili diversi nella lotta…
… “It’s not contradictory for a farmer to say he’s nonviolent and also pledge to shoot a marauder’s head off.”…
Stokely Carmichael e la storia della tipica vecchietta…
… bringing an elderly woman to vote in Lowndes County, Alabama: “She had to be 80 years old and going to vote for the first time in her life. . . . That ol’ lady came up to us, went into her bag, and produced this enormous, rusty Civil War–looking old pistol. ‘Best you hol’ this for me, son. I’ma go cast my vote now.’”…
La nonviolenza ebbe i suoi momenti di gloria che non si possono negare, il boicottaggio dei bus nel 1955-1956 a Montgomery. Oppure i sit-in degli studenti neri.
Tuttavia, molti leader reputavano folle affidarsi solo ad essa. Oltre al fatto che…
… reflected weakness, even cowardly submission…
W. E. B. Du Bois, per esempio, espresse grande scetticismo…
… “No normal human being of trained intelligence is going to fight the man who will not fight back . . . but suppose they are wild beasts or wild men? To yield to the rush of the tiger is death, nothing less.”…
Malcom X
… he denounced Martin Luther King Jr. as a modern Uncle Tom…
Gli antesignani della nonviolenza furono Bayard Rustin, Pauli Murray, James Farmer ma soprattutto Stokely Carmichael, ecco le sue parole…
… “[It] gave our generation—particularly in the South—the means by which to confront an entrenched and violent racism. It offered a way for large numbers of [African Americans] to join the struggle. Nothing passive in that.”…
Lo storico Vincent G. Harding
… Our struggle was not just against something, but was trying to bring something into being. Always at the heart of nonviolent struggle was, and still is, a vision of a new society. Nonviolence enabled people to see something in themselves and others of what could be; they had been captured by the possibility of what could be…
Ad ogni modo, nella comunità nera, chi vedeva la nonviolenza come uno stile di vita era un’esigua minoranza.
Non c’era una tradizione in tal senso. Forse l’unica fonte di ispirazione era un certo cristianesimo neotestamentario…
… nonviolent resistance tapped deeply into a vein of righteousness that was rooted in Afro-Christian values and provided moral guidance… an idealized acceptance of the kind of redemptive love and suffering expressed in the New Testament is the closest black people have come to embracing the philosophy of nonviolence en masse…
Ma le Chiese Battiste erano altrettanto sensibili ai libri e alla logica veterotestamentaria…
… Black Christians, however, have also readily embraced the Old Testament, with all its furies and violence…
Il testo di un Gospel la dice lunga…
… “If I could I surely would Stand on the rock where Moses stood. Pharaoh’s army got drown-ded. Oh Mary don’t you weep”…
La nonviolenza è un elemento estraneo alla cultura americana in generale e nera in particolare.
Al contrario, la cultura dell’autodifesa è profondamente radicata, specie nel sud…
… black people sometimes used the threat of an armed response to survive… southern black communities in the 1950s and ’60s. There was always resistance to the idea of nonviolence…
Bob Moses è ancora il più chiaro su questo punto…
… “Self-defense is so deeply ingrained in rural southern America that we as a small group can’t affect it.” Willingness to engage in armed self-defense played an important role in the southern Freedom Movement, for without it, terrorists would have killed far more people in the movement. “I’m alive today because of the Second Amendment and the natural right to keep and bear arms,”…
Lo spaccato offerto dall’attivista John R. “Hunter Bear” Salter
… he always “traveled armed,” said Salter. “The knowledge that I had these weapons and was willing to use them kept enemies at bay.”… guns would be used to defend his Tougaloo campus, well-known as a launching pad for civil rights protest and thus always a target of terrorists, also helped deter assaults against it, although it could not prevent them completely. In one campus attack, Salter remembers a bullet narrowly missing his daughter… says Salter, “we guarded our campus—faculty and students together. . . . We let this be known. The racist attacks slackened considerably. Night-riders are cowardly people—in any time and place—and they take advantage of fear and weakness.”…
Il diritto di difendersi quando attaccati era sacro…
… a claim to a tradition that has safeguarded and sustained generations of black people in the United States…
Eppure di questo punto ci si dimentica volentieri
… this tradition is almost completely absent from the conventional narrative of southern civil rights struggle…
La comunità armata dei neri d’America fu al centro della lotta per i diritti…
… willing to provide armed protection to nonviolent activists and organizers as well as to black communities…
Le pistole erano parte integrante nella vita del sud.
Ancora Moses…
… never had a chance of usurping the traditional role of firearms in black rural life; although many rural blacks respected protesters’ use of nonviolence, they also mistrusted it…
La figura di Hartman Turnbow, un leader della comunità contadina del Mississippi…
… Turnbow also “traveled armed.” With tragic foresight, Turnbow bluntly warned Martin Luther King Jr. in 1964, “This nonviolent stuff ain’t no good. It’ll get ya killed.”…
Persino il Reverendo King chiese il porto d’armi allo sceriffo della sua contea (rifiutato).
La testimonianza del giornalista William Worthy nel giorno in cui intervistò King…
… Worthy began to sink into an armchair, almost sitting on two pistols. “Bill, wait, wait! Couple of guns on that chair!” warned the nonviolent activist Bayard Rustin… When Rustin asked about the weapons, King responded, “Just for self-defense.”…
Secondo Glenn Smiley della “Fellowship of Reconciliation” King non portava armi su di sé ma la sua casa era un arsenale. Le armi erano utilizzate da delle guardie del corpo sempre presenti a tutela della famiglia…
… Indeed, there were few black leaders who did not seek and receive armed protection from within the black community…
Testimonianza di Daisy Bates, editrice dell’ “Arkansas State Press”…
… recalled that after the Ku Klux Klan burned a cross on her lawn and fired gunshots into her home, her husband Lucious Christopher “L. C.” Bates began staying up to guard their house with a .45-caliber pistol. Friends also organized an armed volunteer patrol to protect the Bates home… Daisy Bates herself sometimes carried a .32-caliber pistol in her handbag…
C. O. Chinn businessman e supporter del movimento…
… he instructed friends and family members to chaperone CORE organizers wherever they went in the rural areas of the county and sometimes even in town. Like Chinn, these chaperones routinely armed themselves…
***
Alcuni leader del movimenti, dicevamo, erano impegnati nella nonviolenza come stile di vita. King era il più prominente. Un altro era il Reverendo James M. Lawson, attivo su in Nashville in Tennessee. Anche John Lewis, ora parlamentare in Georgia, era un nonviolento per convinzione ideale.
Questa era gente filosoficamente convinta della sua scelta. Ma per la maggioranza la musica era ben diversa…
… For most activists, however, nonviolence was simply a useful tactic, one that did not preclude self-defense whenever it was considered necessary and possible…
Persino King…
… acknowledged the legitimacy of self-defense and sometimes blurred the line between nonviolence and self-defense…
Le sue parole sul diritto a difendersi con le armi  furono inequivocabili…
… “The first public expression of disenchantment with nonviolence arose around the question of ‘self-defense,’” he wrote. “In a sense this is a false issue, for the right to defend one’s home and one’s person when attacked has been guaranteed through the ages by common law.”…
In questo senso bianchi e neri erano “culturalmente” in accordo su tutta la linea, cosicché fu facile passare ai fatti…
… South’s powerful gun culture and weak gun control laws enabled black people to acquire and keep weapons…
Il militante medio del movimento di liberazione non si sarebbe mai potuto definire nonviolento o radicale o moderato.
I neri del sud avevano un incentivo fenomenale ad armarsi: le loro proprietà non erano difese dal governo. I poliziotti spesso erano persino membri del KKK.
Si creò così un intreccio indissolubile tra nonviolenza a autodifesa
… relationship between nonviolence and armed self-defense has been consistently overlooked… The dichotomy between violence and nonviolence… is not very helpful… The use of guns for self-defense was not the opposite of nonviolence…
Turnbow il pacifista…
… Hartman Turnbow precisely illustrates what when explaining why, without hesitation, he used his rifle to drive away night riders attacking his home: “I had a wife and I had a daughter and I loved my wife just like the white man loves his’n and a white man will die for his’n and I say I’ll die for mine.”…
Secondo Hubert “Rap” Brown, il quinto direttore dell’ SNCC: “per gli americani la violenza è come la torta di mele”…
… violence has shaped much of U.S. life and culture… the Civil War is one good example… conquest of Native Americans through armed force and the seizure of their lands…
I film di Hollywood starebbero lì a testimoniarlo.
Nonostante questo, sulla violenza dei neri in rivolta è calato il silenzio
… On the other hand, black rebellions—often poorly armed attempts to throw off the bonds of chattel slavery and escape to freedom in some other place—are largely ignored and are sometimes denounced when presented as a legitimate part of the black freedom struggle…
Nella storia americana non esiste uno Spartaco nero.
Ma qui ci interessa proprio un simile soggetto…
… the people—especially the young people—who participated in a nonviolent movement without having much commitment to nonviolence beyond agreeing to use it as a tactic…
Pur stando attenti ad evitare la mitologia dell’uomo in rivolta
… I emphatically do not subscribe to the view that a black man established his manhood by picking up a gun…
Un tipo di cui pure ha parlato molto lo psichiatra Frantz Fanon
… wrote extensively about the mentally liberating effect on men who picked up guns and rebelled against French colonialism in Algeria, and he was widely read by movement activists. Colonialism was overthrown in Algeria in 1962, but that nation’s history since does not show much liberated thought…
La vera rivolta deve essere creativa, non puo’ affidarsi solo alle armi.
***
La storia che ci interessa si inserisce in un continum che inizia con gli schiavi africani…
… they were organizing surreptitiously, out of sight of white people. They planned sabotage, escapes, rebellions,…
La nascita degli Stati Uniti si accompagna ad una grande paura: la rivolta degli schiavi…
… I begin with a discussion of the fear of slave rebellions and insurrections that accompanied the birth of the United States and that underlay almost all gun laws in colonial America…
Il dopo guerra civile è stato un momento particolarmente duro…
… post–Civil War era of Radical Reconstruction, when emancipated black people were poised at freedom’s threshold before savage violence beat them back and “redeemed” white supremacy… the defeated Confederacy, using terrible violence, including lynching and mass murder, waged a ruthless, relentless, and ultimately successful campaign to restore white supremacy…
Lì è cominciata quella che Vincent Harding ha ribattezzato “the Great Tradition of black protest”.
Il nero non era più schiavo: doveva difendersi e al contempo conquistare pieni diritti.
I veterani della guerra civile furono i primi ad organizzarsi formando le prime milizie nere. Gli attacchi erano continui e il governo federale irresoluto nella difesa dei cittadini di colore.
Anche dopo le guerre mondiali l’apporto dei veterani fu decisivo…
… Having fought overseas under the banner of democracy, they were determined to fight for democracy at home….
Il Mississipi, lo stato più violento, fu cruciale nel fronteggiarsi dei neri con i bianchi…
… The stories that have emerged from Mississippi introduce a set of extraordinary heroes and heroines who need to be better known: small farmers, sharecroppers, day laborers, craftsmen, entrepreneurs, and church leaders. Many of these men and women, chafing under white supremacist rule, chose to fight back. Like Salter and Turnbow, they often “traveled armed,” and they kept their homes organized for defense as well. Much of their story is set in rural communities and reveals an unexpected form of “black power” that was grounded in a collective determination to defeat white supremacy, manifested well before that term was popularized by Carmichael in 1966…
Quando i nonviolenti presentarono la loro proposta le persone comuni li accettarono nel movimento solo in quanto schietti militanti, la loro proposta era secondaria e circondata da un certo scetticismo. Ma quando funzionò tutti la sostenettero. Vigeva un certo sano pragmatismo.
A quel tempo le principali milizie nere erano due: la “Deacons for Defense and Justice”, formatasi a Jonesboro in Louisiana e la “Robert Williams’s branch” legata alla NAACP di Monroe…
… The Deacons protected nonviolent CORE workers under attack by the Ku Klux Klan; the Monroe NAACP, largely led by World War II veterans, also protected the black community from Klan attacks…
Ma una menzione spetta anche all’organizzazione di veterani messa su a Tuscaloosa in Alabama da Joseph Mallisham
… Their 1964 protection of the nonviolent Tuscaloosa Citizens for Action Committee (TCAC), an SCLC affiliate, played an important role in bringing about the unexpectedly rapid elimination of segregation in the city’s public accommodations…
La cooperazione di queste milizie contribuì negli anni ‘60 all’estinzione del terrorismo bianco.
Si trattava di organizzazioni perfettamente integrate nel movimento e vissute come presenze naturali, specialmente dalla generazione più anziana…
… Significantly, it was most often the relatively conservative adults involved with the movement, rather than the radical young “militants,” who organized armed self-defense in southern black communities…
Il loro lavoro rese sempre più chiara una lezione fondamentale
… whites had learned that antiblack violence was ineffective and counterproductive…
Nel corso degli anno sessanta, l’epilogo
… In Memphis, Tennessee, during the 1968 sanitation workers strike, King and his associates felt pressure from the Black Organizing Project (BOP) to sanction retaliatory violence. But generally in the South, despite some continuation of white violence, such as the Orangeburg massacre and the assault at Jackson State College (now University), the need for organized self-defense seemed to decrease after the early 1960s… in 1968 even the Deacons for Defense and Justice had disbanded…
Taluni leader venivano vissuti come “troppo radicali” per la piega presa dalla storia…
… The presence of genuinely radical figures like Mrs. Fannie Lou Hamer of Sunflower County, Mississippi—and they were few—led a political process that had heretofore excluded black people to worry that the southern movement was too “radical”; sharecroppers, day workers, and the like were insisting on being part of the political process…
Il successo del movimento dei diritti civili portò in primo piano i leader nonviolenti ma a quel successo, meglio ricordarlo, contribuirono a pieno titolo coloro che imbracciarono un fucile e impugnarono le pistole.
django

martedì 8 novembre 2016

Le ragioni del terzomondismo

Il motto del terzomondista è "loro sono poveri perchè noi siamo ricchi", dacchè segue condanna del nostro modello "sfruttatore".
In realtà il modello di economia liberale arricchisce tutti sul lungo periodo, ciò non toglie che nella storia l'Occidente abbia in molte occasioni sfruttato i paesi poveri con ripercussioni severe per il loro sviluppo successivo, ma questo perché sono stati esclusi dal mercato, non perché ne sono stati vittime. 
Un vivido resoconto delle nostre colpe si ha leggendo REVERSING DEVELOPMENT SPICE AND GENOCIDE di Daron Acemoglu e James A. Robinson che partono con il caso emblematico delle isole Molucche nel sud-est asiatico...
... the Moluccas were then central to world trade as the only producers of the valuable spices cloves, mace, and nutmeg. Of these, nutmeg and mace grew only in the Banda Islands. Inhabitants of these islands produced and exported these rare spices in exchange for food and manufactured goods coming from the island of Java, from the entrepôt of Melaka on the Malaysian Peninsula, and from India, China, and Arabia...
Poi arrivarono i portoghesi per commerciare le spezie: in precedenza venivano spedite dal Medio Oriente e dalla Turchia. Il primo a doppiare il Capo di Buona Speranza fu Bartolomeo Diaz nel 1488, a seguire Vasco de Gama giunse nelle Indie dieci anni dopo.
I portoghesi presero Melaka  nel 1511, ora gli europei avevano la loro via autonoma per le spezie. Ecco la testimonianza del mercante Tomé Pires...
.... "The trade and commerce between the different nations for a thousand leagues on every hand must come to Melaka . . . Whoever is lord of Melaka has his hands at the throat of Venice"...
Il tentativo di stabilire un monopolio fallì per la vitalità della concorrenza locale...
... City-states such as Aceh, Banten, Melaka, Makassar, Pegu, and Brunei expanded rapidly, producing and exporting spices along with other products such as hardwoods...
Ma la musica cambiò con l' arrivo degli olandesi nel 1600 che operarono facendosi firmare delle esclusive, era il metodo abituale della Compagnie delle Indie Olandesi...
... It was also the second company that had its own army and the power to wage war and colonize foreign lands. With the military power of the company now brought to bear, the Dutch proceeded to eliminate all potential interlopers to enforce their treaty with the ruler of Ambon. They captured a key fort held by the Portuguese in 1605 and forcibly removed all other traders...
Nelle Molucche, il metodo dell'esclusiva trovò facile applicazione ad Ambon, dove c'era un capo assoluto con il controllo del territorio. Ma nell'arcipelago delle isole Banda la situazione politica era frammentata e non esisteva un interlocutore designato...
... The Dutch also took control of the Banda Islands, intending this time to monopolize mace and nutmeg. But the Banda Islands were organized very differently from Ambon. They were made up of many small autonomous city-states, and there was no hierarchical social or political structure. These small states, in reality no more than small towns, were run by village meetings of citizens. There was no central authority whom the Dutch could coerce into signing a monopoly... At first this meant that the Dutch had to compete with English, Portuguese, Indian, and Chinese merchants...
A fronte del fallimento, Jan Pieterszoon Coen - governatore di Batavia - tentò un piano alternativo: il massacro e la deportazione della popolazione in modo che rimanesse disponibile solo una forza di schiavi....
... In 1621 he sailed to Banda with a fleet and proceeded to massacre almost the entire population of the islands, probably about fifteen thousand people. All their leaders were executed along with the rest, and only a few were left alive, enough to preserve the know-how necessary for mace and nutmeg production. After this genocide was complete, Coen then proceeded to create the political and economic structure necessary for his plan: a plantation society...
Quindicimila vittime. La tabula rasa riguardò anche le sofisticate istituzioni, fu una condanna al sottosviluppo della regione. La successiva produzione di spezie di fatto collassò del 60%.
Ma gli olandesi si reputarono soddisfatti ed esportarono la strategia della "soluzione finale" anche ad altre regioni del sud-est asiatico. La costante espansione commerciale di questi stati fu stroncata e molti di loro per non subire le "attenzioni" degli olandesi abbandonarono o ridussero le loro culture: l'autoarchia era più sicura.
Baenten, sull'isola di Java, per esempio, si tagliarono in massa le piante del pepe.
Testimonianza di un mercante olandese nelle filippine:
… “Nutmeg and cloves can be grown here, just as in Malaku. They are not there now because the old Raja had all of them ruined before his death. He was afraid the Dutch Company would come to fight with them about it.”…
Altre piaghe: de-urbanizzazione e declino della popolazione.
Tanto per dire: la capitale della Birmania fu trasferita dalla costa all’entroterra.
Insomma, la colonizzazione olandese fu disastrosa per il sud est asiatico…
… The people in Southeast Asia stopped trading, turned inward, and became more absolutist…
In queste condizioni è facile capire che nessuno di questi popoli trasse vantaggio dalle innovazioni della rivoluzione industriale
… In Southeast Asia the spread of European naval and commercial power in the early modern period curtailed a promising period of economic expansion and institutional change…
Intanto in Africa si verificava un fenomeno molto differente legato alla tratta degli schiavi.
Negli USA ci si riferiva alla schiavitù come all’ “istituzione peculiare” ma lo storico Moses Finland ci rende edotti del fatto che la schiavitù non è affatto “peculiare” ma è presente in tutte le società umane: era endemica già nell’antica Roma che si procurava i suoi schiavi dalle regioni slave e nordiche.
Nel 1400 gli europei smisero di schiavizzarsi a vicenda ma l’Africa non conobbe il passaggio dalla schiavitù al servaggio, il commercio degli schiavi, specie verso la penisola araba, rimase molto fiorente…
… medieval West African states of Mali, Ghana, and Songhai made heavy use of slaves… adopting organizational models from the Muslim North African…
Nel ‘700 le colonie caraibiche cominciarono la coltivazione della canna da zucchero che richiedeva molta manodopera non specializzata. Cominciò il traffico internazionale di schiavi e l’Africa, da sempre in prima linea in questi commerci, fu subissata di richieste alle quali cercò di rispondere. Qualche numero:
… In the sixteenth century, probably about 300,000 slaves were traded in the Atlantic. They came mostly from Central Africa, with heavy involvement of Kongo and the Portuguese based farther south in Luanda, now the capital of Angola. During this time, the trans-Saharan slave trade was still larger, with probably about 550,000 Africans moving north as slaves. In the seventeenth century, the situation reversed. About 1,350,000 Africans were sold as slaves in the Atlantic trade, the majority now being shipped to the Americas… The eighteenth century saw another dramatic increase, with about 6,000,000 slaves being shipped across the Atlantic… Adding the figures up over periods and parts of Africa, well over 10,000,000 Africans were shipped out…
La poderosa domanda europea ebbe un impatto forte sulle società africane. Gli affari garantiti trasformarono molti stati africani in stati produttori di schiavi, ovvero in stati guerrieri visto che gli schiavi erano per lo più prigionieri di guerra. “Cattura e vendi”, questo l’imperativo che arricchì molti popoli locali.
Lo stato guerriero era uno stato assoluto con un capo plenipotenziario che esercitava un controllo totale sulla popolazione. Prima, le società africane erano molto più decentralizzate, alla stregua di quelle del medioevo europeo. Tutta questa articolazione andò in malora.
La trasformazione del sistema giudiziario fu esemplare, esisteva una sola punizione: la schiavitù! Il destino del famoso oracolo Arochukwa spiega molto…
… One example is the famous oracle at Arochukwa, in eastern Nigeria. The oracle was widely believed to speak for a prominent deity in the region respected by the major local ethnic groups, the Ijaw, the Ibibio, and the Igbo. The oracle was approached to settle disputes and adjudicate on disagreements. Plaintiffs who traveled to Arochukwa to face the oracle had to descend from the town into a gorge of the Cross River, where the oracle was housed in a tall cave, the front of which was lined with human skulls. The priests of the oracle, in league with the Aro slavers and merchants, would dispense the decision of the oracle. Often this involved people being “swallowed” by the oracle, which actually meant that once they had passed through the cave, they were led away down the Cross River and to the waiting ships of the Europeans. This process in which all laws and customs were distorted and broken to capture slaves and more slaves had devastating effects on political centralization, though in some places it did lead to the rise of powerful states whose main raison d’être was raiding and slaving…
Il regno del Congo si trasformò in uno stato schiavista. Un altro tipico stato schiavista e conquistatore fu quello degli Oyo in Nigeria…
… As Oyo expanded south toward the coast, it crushed the intervening polities and sold many of their inhabitants for slaves. In the period between 1690 and 1740, Oyo established its monopoly in the interior of what came to be known as the Slave Coast…
Si realizzò una drammatica miscela di schiavizzazione e guerre. Un esempio canonico è quello di Asante
… Asante expanded from the interior, in much the same way as Oyo had previously. During the first half of the eighteenth century, this expansion triggered the so-called Akan Wars, as Asante defeated one independent state after another. The last, Gyaman, was conquered in 1747. The preponderance of the 375,000 slaves exported from the Gold Coast between 1700 and 1750 were captives taken in these wars…
Lo sfruttamento dell’uomo sull’uomo causò anche ripercussioni demografiche delle quali si è occupato lo storico Patrick Manning… 
… population of this region in 1850 ought to have been at least forty-six to fifty-three million. In fact, it was about one-half of this… million people being exported as slaves… millions likely killed by continual internal warfare aimed at capturing slaves…
Persino istituzioni ben radicate come quella matrimoniale davano segni di disgregazione.
A fine 700 cominciò a farsi sentire in Europa il movimento anti schiavista con a capo  William Wilberforce. Nel 1807 la schiavitù era illegale.
Fu un durissimo colpo per le economie africane ormai organizzate intorno a questo commercio.
Si cerco di virare verso i cosiddetti commerci legittimi: olio di palma, noccioline, avori, gomma… Ma che fare dell’eccesso di schiavi e dell’apparato costruito per “produrli”? Semplice, furono utilizzati in loco nella cultura dei prodotti legittimi da esportare. L’esempio di Asante…
… the Asante political elite reorganized their economy. However, slaving and slavery did not end. Rather, slaves were settled on large plantations, initially around the capital city of Kumase, but later spread throughout the empire (corresponding to most of the interior of Ghana). They were employed in the production of gold and kola nuts for export, but also grew large quantities of food and were intensively used as porters, since Asante did not use wheeled transportation…
L’abolizione della schiavitù nel mondo occidentale fece sì che l’economia africana crescesse con al centro l’utilizzo degli schiavi. Le guerre continue necessarie alla loro produzione continuarono inalterate. Si diffuse a macchia d’olio anche la pratica dei rapimenti.
… Kidnapping was such a problem in some parts of Nigeria that parents would not let their children play outside…
L’800 africano vide un’espansione della schiavitù anziché una contrazione, com’era logico attendersi dopo l’abolizione in Europa…
… More accurate data exist from early French colonial records for the western Sudan, a large swath of western Africa, stretching from Senegal, via Mali and Burkina Faso, to Niger and Chad. In this region 30 percent of the population was enslaved in 1900…
Persino la colonizzazione europea del XIX secolo non riuscì a stroncare un’istituzione ormai consolidata. Ci sono casi paradossali come quello della Sierra Leone e della Liberia
… In Sierra Leone, for example, it was only in 1928 that slavery was finally abolished, even though the capital city of Freetown was originally established in the late eighteenth century as a haven for slaves repatriated from the Americas. It then became an important base for the British antislavery squadron and a new home for freed slaves rescued from slave ships captured by the British navy…Liberia, just south of Sierra Leone, was likewise founded for freed American slaves in the 1840s. Yet there, too, slavery lingered into the twentieth century; as late as the 1960s, it was estimated that one-quarter of the labor force were coerced, living and working in conditions close to slavery…
Naturalmente, schiavitù diffusa e guerre non creano l’ambiente ideale per recepire e mettere a frutto le grandi novità della rivoluzione industriale, da qui il perenne sottosviluppo dell’ Africa sub-sahariana.
Ma c’è anche un’ Africa che non conobbe la schiavitù: il Sudafrica. Vediamo allora come andarono le cose da questa parte del mondo.
Sir Artur Lewis – pioniere dell’economia dello sviluppo – propose il modello dell’economia duale per spiegare l’arretratezza di certi paesi…
… According to Lewis, many less-developed or underdeveloped economies have a dual structure and are divided into a modern sector and a traditional sector. The modern sector, which corresponds to the more developed part of the economy, is associated with urban life, modern industry, and the use of advanced technologies. The traditional sector is associated with rural life, agriculture, and “backward” institutions and technologies. Backward agricultural institutions include the communal ownership of land, which implies the absence of private property rights on land. Labor was used so inefficiently in the traditional sector, according to Lewis, that it could be reallocated to the modern sector without reducing the amount the rural sector could produce…
La soluzione era semplice: spostare persone dai settori poveri a quelli ricchi e più produttivi.
Per decenni il paradigma di Lewis fu adottato da tutti. Il Sudafrica illustra però il suo lato debole…
… South Africa was one of the clearest examples, split into a traditional sector that was backward and poor and a modern one that was vibrant and prosperous… Across the river, it is as if it were a different time and a different country… By now you will not be surprised that these differences are linked with major differences in economic institutions between the two sides of the river…
A est, nel Natal, troviamo proprietà privata, agricoltura commerciale, industria e prosperità. A ovest, nel Transkei, abbiamo tribalismo, beni comuni e scarsa produttività. Tutti i neri vivevano in questo territorio governato da istituzioni pre-moderno.
Il paradigma di Lewis descrive bene la fotografia della situazione ma non ci fa capire la storia che c’è dietro. Il dualismo così ben visibile non era un portato della storia ma un fenomeno recente…
… It was created by the South African white elites in order to produce a reservoir of cheap labor…and reduce competition from black Africans…
Partiamo dall’inizio. Per clima e salubrità il Sudafrica è sempre stato appetibile per gli europei, l’espansione all’interno da parte degli olandesi cominciò subito dopo la presa degli inglesi del capo di Buona Speranza. Erano le terre degli Xhosa (Bantù), un popolo immune da ogni forma di schiavismo…
… The penetration into the South African interior was intensified in 1835, when the remaining Europeans of Dutch descent, who would become known as Afrikaners or Boers, started their famous mass migration known as the Great Trek away from the British control of the coast and the Cape Town area. The Afrikaners subsequently founded two independent states in the interior of Africa, the Orange Free State and the Transvaal…
Altro evento capitale fu la scoperta dei diamanti a Kimberley nel 1867 e dell’oro a Johannesburg nel 1886. Una simile ricchezza indusse gli inglesi a controllare più strettamente questi territori…
… The resistance of the Orange Free State and the Transvaal led to the famous Boer Wars in 1880–1881 and 1899–1902… After initial unexpected defeat, the British managed to merge the Afrikaner states with the Cape Province and Natal…
Lo sviluppo portato dalle miniere e la forte domanda alimentare fece prosperare l’intera economia africana circostante, in particolare talune culture agricole.
Lo storico Colin Bundy descrive bene il dinamismo economico della regione. La testimonianza di un missionario…
… “To obtain these objects, they look . . . to get money by the labour of their hands, and purchase clothes, spades, ploughs, wagons and other useful articles.”… he was struck with the very great advancement made by the Fingoes in a few years . . . Wherever I went I found substantial huts and brick or stone tenements. In many cases, substantial brick houses had been erected . . . and fruit trees had been planted; wherever a stream of water could be made available it had been led out and the soil cultivated as far as it could be irrigated; the slopes of the hills and even the summits of the mountains were cultivated wherever a plough could be introduced. The extent of the land turned over surprised me; I have not seen such a large area of cultivated land for years…
L’aratro, una tecnologia nuova, fu prontamente adottato senza difficoltà. Ma furono approntati anche canali d’irrigazione. Le classiche istituzioni tribali cominciavano a svanire, la proprietà privata prendeva piede e l’agricoltura fioriva. Testimonianza del magistrato di Umzimkulu of Griqualand…
… “the growing desire of the part of natives to become proprietors of land—they have purchased 38,000 acres.”…
Un vero cambiamento era in atto. Un caso di successo fu quello dell’imprenditore Stephen Sonjica
… self-made farmer from a poor background. In an address in 1911, Sonjica noted how when he first expressed to his father his desire to buy land, his father had responded: “Buy land? How can you want to buy land? Don’t you know that all land is God’s, and he gave it to the chiefs only?” Sonjica’s father’s reaction was understandable. But Sonjica was not deterred. He got a job in King William’s Town…
Testimonianza del missionario metodista W.J. Davis…
… he recorded with pleasure that he had collected forty-six pounds in cash “for the Lancashire Cotton Relief Fund.”…
Tuttavia, questa evoluzione dispiaceva comprensibilmente ai capi tradizionali che si opposero a molte riforme agrarie. Una testimonianza:
… “some of the chiefs . . . objected, but most of the people were pleased... the chiefs see that the granting of individual titles will destroy their influence among the headmen.”…
Si opposero ferocemente anche allo scavo dei canali per l’irrigazione e all’introduzione di una proprietà privata sempre più estesa.
Nel periodo 1890-1913 il corso delle degli eventi si invertì e il tempo volse al brutto.
Dapprima lo sviluppo africano trovò un ostacolo nell’opposizione degli agricoltori bianchi. E’ chiaro che una concorrenza così feroce li disturbava.
In secondo luogo, le miniere chiedevano manodopera a basso costo e la presenza di attività economiche alternative era un ostacolo. George Albu, il direttore delle miniere, in uno scambio con la commissione governativa:
… Commission: Suppose the kaffirs [black Africans] retire back to their kraal [cattle pen]? Would you be in favor of asking the Government to enforce labour? Albu: Certainly . . . I would make it compulsory . . . Why should a nigger be allowed to do nothing? I think a kaffir should be compelled to work in order to earn his living. Commission: If a man can live without work, how can you force him to work? Albu: Tax him, then . . . Commission: Then you would not allow the kaffir to hold land in the country, but he must work for the white man to enrich him? Albu: He must do his part of the work of helping his neighbours …
Nel 1913 si varò la “Legge sui Nativi” che divideva il Sudafrica in due parti confinando gli africani in riserve minuscole, era l’inizio dell’ Apartheid. Molti diritti economici e politici venivano riservati alla minoranza bianca. Gli africani non potevano essere “proprietari” e con loro si potevano stipulare solo contratti di servizio: l’agricoltura dei nativi, così promettente, si dissolse.
Un economista in visita negli anni 50 avrebbe visto una nazione divisa in due: da una parte gli europei istruiti e sviluppati, dall’altra gli africani poveri e arretrati. Il dualismo di Lewis perfettamente confermato ma tutt’altro che naturale, bensì imposto con la forza dalla minoranza privilegiata. Un portato del colonialismo europeo, un frutto amaro di leggi governative discriminatorie per creare manodopera economica in vista dell’impiego nelle miniere, oppure per proteggere gli agricoltori bianchi da una concorrenza agguerrita.
In condizioni del genere tornarono i capi tradizionali, gli stregoni e le istituzioni di un tempo. La terra torno ad essere “bene comune”, e quindi sterile.
Nel 1951 fu varato il “Bantù Act”. Nelle parole dello storico Findlay…
… Tribal tenure is a guarantee that the land will never properly be worked and will never really belong to the natives. Cheap labour must have a cheap breeding place, and so it is furnished to the Africans at their own expense…
L’evidenza portata alla luce dallo storico Francis Wilson dimostra il contraccolpo nel tenore di vita dei neri e il declino della loro economia…
… miners’ wages fell by 30 percent between 1911 and 1921… in 1961… 12 percent lower than they had been in 1911…No African was allowed to own property or start a business in the European part…87 percent of the land…
Da notare che anche nel settore del lavoro subordinato, già dal 1904, una quota dei posti era sempre riservata ai bianchi….
… No African was allowed to be an amalgamator, an assayer, a banksman, a blacksmith, a boiler maker, a brass finisher, a brassmolder, a bricklayer . . . and the list went on and on, all the way to woodworking machinist. At a stroke, Africans were banned from occupying any skilled job in the mining sector. This was the first incarnation of the famous “colour bar,” one of the several racist inventions of South Africa’s regime…
Negli anni 50 Hendrik Verwoerd varò il “Bantù Edication Act”…
… The Bantu must be guided to serve his own community in all respects. There is no place for him in the European community above the level of certain forms of labour... For that reason it is to no avail to him to receive a training which has as its aim absorption in the European community while he cannot and will not be absorbed there…
Con istituzioni sfruttatrici di questo tipo l’economia ne risentì anche nel suo complesso, gli anni 70 segnarono il primo forte rallentamento…
… At the time of the foundation of the Union of South Africa in 1910, the Afrikaner polities of the Orange Free State and the Transvaal had explicit racial franchises, barring blacks completely from political participation. Natal and the Cape Colony allowed blacks to vote if they had sufficient property, which typically they did not. The status quo of Natal and the Cape Colony was kept in 1910, but by the 1930s, blacks had been explicitly disenfranchised everywhere in South Africa. The dual economy of South Africa did come to an end in 1994…
Il resto è storia recente.
Un piccolo riassunto della tesi di fondo:
…World inequality today exists because during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries some nations were able to take advantage of the Industrial Revolution and the technologies and methods of organization that it brought while others were unable to do so…
Ecco, nei casi descritti il terzomondista ha ben ragione nel dire: “loro sono ricchi perché noi siamo poveri”. Ma la colpa non è del “modello occidentale” bensì dell’esclusione dal “modello occidentale”. E’ un certo modello coloniale, piuttosto, a dover essere messo sotto accusa.
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