Visualizzazione post con etichetta robin hanson elephant in the brain. Mostra tutti i post
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sabato 25 agosto 2018

La religione per gli atei SAGGIO

La religione per gli atei

Al fine di chiarire come ci vedono gli atei (almeno quelli che più rispetto) rispolvero gli appunti presi nel corso della lettura di “The Elephant in the Brain: Hidden Motives in Everyday Life” scritto da Kevin Simler e Robin Hanson
  • All’ateo ingenuo la religione appare a prima vista un enorme sprecodi risorse, anche se compiuto in buona fede. Gran parte dei rituali tipici – mutilazioni, auto-flagellazioni, circoncisioni, sacrifici, martirio – appaiono controproducenti in termini di salute, ricchezza e fertilità: Darwin ne resterebbe sbigottito.
  • Ma c’è un altro mistero che va oltre i comportamenti: gli affiliati sembrano credere cose piuttosto strane (dio, angeli, fantasmi, demoni, animali parlanti, vergini che partoriscono, profezie, esorcismi, reincarnazione, inferni, paradisi, rivelazioni magiche, transustanziazioni, passeggiate sull’acqua…). Come mai persone ragionevoli arrivano a tanto?
  • La spiegazione tradizionale fornita dagli interessati è chiara: crediamo a Dio quindi andiamo in Chiesa. Crediamo nell’Inferno quindi preghiamo. Potremmo chiamare questo modello “credenza innanzitutto” CI. D’altronde, le nostre credenze determinano i nostri comportamenti in molti campi.
  • Il tipico dibattito tra religiosi e atei verte sulla ragionevolezza della fede ma molti atei (più saggi) valutano come fondamentalmente superflua una simile discussione poiché non credono nel modello CI. Per loro la fede non è infatti qualcosa che riguarda la credenza.
  • Ecco allora il loro modello alternativo: noi aderiamo a una religione perché siamo creature sociali. Potremmo definire questo modello come “religione strategia sociale” RSS. E’ chiaro che se si crede in RSS il dibattito sulla ragionevolezza della credenza è superfluo e va sostituito con il dibattito sulla funzionalità della credenza.
  • Primo indizio a favore del modello RSS: molte religioni non mettono grande enfasi sulla dottrina, si interessano poco a cio’ che realmente crede il fedele nel suo privato. In questo senso il Cristianesimo e l’ Islam sono eccezioni, Greci e Romani non avevano certo un atteggiamento simile. Induismo, Ebraismo e Shintoismo sono tradizioni culturali più che credenze in un essere soprannaturale. Tra gli ebrei, per esempio, sono molti gli atei che continuano ad osservare i rituali.
  • Altro indizio: molte attività non religiose che anche gli atei accettano come “normali” sono in realtà molto affini a quelle religiose. Quando alle Olimpiadi si suona l’Inno nazionale sembra di assistere ad una cerimonia religiosa, anziché di “fede” parliamo però di “patriottismo” ma cambia poco. Pensiamo poi al comunismo dei bei tempi o alla Nord Corea di oggi: lì tutto è liturgia. Ma i “culti” abbondano ovunque. Dai brand commerciali (Apple) all’ideologia politica, dai gruppi musicali al tifo calcistico… Ci sono poi religioni considerate unanimamente tali che non contemplano alcuna credenza in esseri soprannaturali.
  • Il fatto che la religione sia un’illusione non significa che sia dannosa, come ritengono i nuovi-atei (NA). In genere le persone sanno cosa è bene per loro cosicché le prediche dei NA suonano particolarmente fuori luogo. Oltretutto, la gran parte delle persone che va in Chiesa è socialmente ben inserita, rispettata, responsabile e ottiene risultati sopra la media in molti campi cruciali: fumano meno, fanno più volontariato, sono più generosi, hanno relazioni sociali più solide, vivono di più, si sposano di più e divorziano meno, hanno più bambini, guadagnano di più, sono meno depressi, sono più felici e realizzate. Insomma, se la religione è illusione, sembrerebbe un’illusione particolarmente proficua.
  • A che serve allora la religione? Risposta atea: a creare comunità. La religione “fa squadra”. Una comunità ordinata fa bene a tutti ma la si puo’ erigere solo rinunciando a parte del nostro egoismo, cooperare infatti è difficile perché la tentazione di “tradire” è sempre in agguato. Ma come si minimizzano i tradimenti? Scovandoli e punendoli, ma la religione ha altri assi nella sua manica, dei trucchi particolarmente utili quando scovare e punire è particolarmente difficile. Il fatto che in passato questa operazione fosse praticamente impossibile spiegherebbe l’universalità della credenza religiosa e come essa s’indebolisca solo nelle società tecnologicamente più avanzate.
  • Ma come si “crea comunità” attraverso la religione? Come si crea il cemento comunitario, ovvero la fiducia? Innanzitutto, la religione esalta e richiede dei sacrifici a prima vista insensati. A guardar bene però il sacrificio ha sempre un valore comunitario: chi consideriamo come nostro migliore alleato? Chi è leale e si sacrificherà per noi nel momento del bisogno. Ebbene, la religione ci chiede dei sacrifici rituali pubblici da compiere “in nome” del gruppo. Tali sacrifici hanno un costo (non sono facilmente falsificabili) e segnalano quindi a tutti in modo attendibile il proprio impegno per comunitario. Lo scambio sotteso è questo: ci si sacrifica personalmente in un certo ambito personale (tempo, denaro, salute…) per ottenere benefici in termini di capitale sociale in altri (fiducia). Questi ultimi ha un’utilità generale oltre che personale! Se per essere musulmano e incassare la fiducia dei correligionari bastasse dire “sono musulmano” il segnale fornito sarebbe facilmente falsificabile e quindi senza valore. Un sacrificio costoso invece non è falsificabile e puo’ riguardare il cibo (sacrificio di animali), il denaro (la decima), il tempo (la Messa), la salute (flagellazione), il piacere (castità), lo status (prostrazione), la fertilità (celibato). I sacrifici sono ovunque (mia moglie non  ha fatto l’epidurale in nome di…) Esempio, se il Papa avesse dei figli la sua lealtà sarebbe divisa tra la comunità che guida e la sua famiglia, sacrificare la seconda aumenta il capitale personale investito sulla prima e quindi l’affidabilità del soggetto. Il personaggio più affidabile della Bibbia probabilmente è Abramo. Perché lo sappiamo? Semplice, perché sappiamo che era pronto a sacrificare suo figlio in nome di Dio. Per l’ateo “dio” è un sinonimo di “comunità”.  Non a caso Abramo fu un grande leader politico. La funzione sociale assolta oggi dalle agenzie di rating e dagli speculatori era assolta ieri dal sacrificio pubblico: chi accumula punti (reputazionali) a caro prezzo difficilmente li sprecherà poi con un gesto sconsiderato, il che fornisce una garanzia di affidabilità con un chiaro risparmio sociale in termini di monitoraggio dei comportamenti personali. Ancora oggi in paesi come gli USA, tanto per dire, difficilmente verrà mai eletto un Presidente ateo.
  • Molti comandamenti religiosi hanno un contenuto sociale evidente. Alcune proibizioni, per esempio, riguardano il furto, l’assassinio, la violenza, la disonestà. Vengono per contro celebrate la generosità, la magnanimità e la compassione. Oggi per far rispettare queste condotte ci limitiamo a scovare i trasgressori e a punirli, nelle comunità religiose la deterrenza era garantita per lo più dalla minaccia di scomunica. In questo senso la partecipazione a riti costosi è ancora una volta cruciale: chi per anni è stato solerte ai riti, si è ben inserito nella comunità e ha così accumulato un ingente capitale sociale vedrà nella scomunica uno spauracchio tutt’altro che banale. Gli altri lo sanno e si fideranno quindi di lui, il che è vantaggioso per tutti! E teniamo ben presente che ci riferiamo ad epoche storiche in cui “scovare e punire” non era un’alternativa praticabile poiché praticamente impossibile causa limitatissimo controllo del territorio.
  • Altre norme riguardavano sesso e famiglia. Nel modello tradizionale cattolico ci si sposa presto, si mette (almeno in teoria) l’amore al centro, si osserva la monogamia e si hanno molti figli. Un simile modello è particolarmente funzionale alle società piccole e senza stato, i vantaggi sono evidenti: 1) tanti familiari tanta fiducia, 2) pochi scapoli giovani più sicurezza 3) matrimonio amicale paternità certa. I nemici che interferiscono con questo modello sono noti: contraccezione, aborto, divorzio, adulterio.
  • La sincronia crea comunità – la marcia militare rafforza il cameratismo, per esempio. Non chiedetemi perché ma è così, i curiosi si leggano l’abbondante letteratura in materia. All’IBM nel XX secolo e in molte corporation giapponesi ancora oggi si canta per iniziare la giornata di lavoro. Ebbene, nelle religioni la sincronia abbonda, gli Hare Krishna sono un caso estremo. I cristiani non danzano più come un tempo ma canti e preghiere recitate all’unisono sono usuali durante la Messa.
  • Nei sermoni il predicatore chiarisce ai fedeli i valori della religione. Ma il sermone ha un significato che va ben oltre a questa trasmissione di informazioni, non a caso viene tenuto nel corso del rito (la Messa). La nostra presenza pubblica sui banchi dice a tutti che stiamo ascoltando, che approviamo, e che riteniamo un’autorità chi lo pronuncia: il sermone non è l’intervento di un conferenziere a cui segue dibattito. I banchi della Chiesa non servono solo per ascoltare ma anche per farsi vedere da tutti che si sta ascoltando e per vedere chi ascolta. Fare tutto questo “insieme” è fondamentale. I teorici dei giochi direbbero che il sermone crea “conoscenza comune”, una risorsa comunitaria inestimabile. Paradosso: tutto cio’ ha valore persino se non si condivide il messaggio fondamentale e persino se tutti non condividono sapendo che tutti non condividono: l’importante, infatti, è sapere che tutti si comporteranno “come se” tutto sia “Parola di Dio” da condividere.
  • La religione fornisce anche una divisa (o un badge) in modo da distinguere chiaramente “chi è dentro” da “chi è fuori”, una funzione importante quando la società si allarga e i membri diventano anonimi. Il brand è importante anche oggi: quando Gucci mette il suo marchio su una borsa noi abbiamo una garanzia di qualità. Un cristiano che giura sulla Bibbia è più affidabile di un ateo che non ha nulla su cui giurare.
  • Ora sappiamo che Dio non è una mera superstizione ma qualcosa in qualche modo di utile: l’utilità non deriva tanto dalla credenza in sé ma dal fatto che gli altri credano che noi crediamo. Chi pensa di essere punito da Dio diventa affidabile agli occhi di chi pensa che lui pensi davvero ad una punizione divina. Questa fiducia è sia un bene pubblico che un bene privato cosicché è conveniente per noi far credere che crediamo, e il miglior modo per adempiere questa missione è… credere realmente. Ecco l’origine della fede in buona fede in un essere soprannaturale.
  • In questo resoconto restano fuori i grandi scontri sulle minuzie teologiche come per esempio la tansustanziazione o l’esatta natura della Trinità. Come possono essere spiegate adottando un modello per cui la credenza non sta al centro della fede? Ipotesi: potrebbero essere visti anch’essi come un badge, ovvero un impegno di lealtà per una confessione piuttosto che per un’altra. Poiché, come dicevo, è importante stabilire chi è dentro e chi è fuori marcare i confini è fondamentale e giustifica discussioni all’apparenza sofistiche. L’ortodossia adempie a questa funzione e lo farebbe quand’anche fosse arbitraria. Proprio quando non esistono particolari motivi per tifare Juve piuttosto che Inter la scelta di campo testimonia un impegno affidabile. Quand’anche la tua squadra non avesse nulla in più delle altre rimarrebbe pur sempre “la tua squadra”. Talvolta, più la credenza è stravagante più diventa affidabile chi vi aderisce pagando un prezzo elevato come il sacrificio del buon senso. Pensate a quanto sia affidabile un mormone che si comporta da mormone e a quanto questo sia prezioso per la comunità a cui aderisce.
  • Detto questo restano ancora da spiegare talune condotte religiose decisamente anti-darwiniane: il celibato e il martirio. Di certo si tratta di pratiche che arrecano prestigio nella comunità, è quindi comprensibile che esista un istinto in questo senso. Potremmo parlare allora di una “deriva”, ovvero di un istinto perfettamente spiegabile che in taluni soggetti si presenta in forma estrema al punto da arrecare un danno personale. La cosa è osservabile in molti contesti: lo zucchero (utile) induce anche obesità, la droga (piacevole) porta all’ overdose, senza il prezioso zelo militare non ci sarebbero i kamikaze, l’alpinismo serve a chi vive in montagna scatena anche passioni che mettono a rischio la vita umana. Adattamento e deriva evoluzionistica si presentano spesso in coppia senza contraddirsi.

15 Religion HL

15 Religion
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Hajj.
Note:VISITA ALLA MECCA...OA PIÙ GRANDE MIGRAZIONE UMANA

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five days every year,
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walk seven times counterclockwise around the Kaaba
Note:RITO 1

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shave their heads;
Note:RIRO 2

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run back and forth between two hills;
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3...ECCETERA

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What drives these pilgrims is no ordinary biological motive.
Note:MOTIVAZIONE

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Hajj seems like an enormous waste of resources.
Note:A PRIMA VISTA

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most of what people do in the name of God
Note:NN È OPPORTUNISMO...È CHIARO

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there’s a self-serving logic to even the most humble and earnest of religious activities.
Note:EPPURE LA RELIGIONE SERVE...

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THE MYSTERY OF RELIGION
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practices are peculiar, many of them seem downright counterproductive—a waste of precious energy, resources, and even fertility and health.
Note:PARADOSSO DELLA RELIGIONE

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undergoing ritual mutilations like piercing, scarification, self-flagellation, and circumcision.
Note:DARWIN SBIGOTTITO

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martyring themselves in the name of their religions.
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In addition to the behaviors, we also have to explain the menagerie of peculiar religious beliefs. A quick tour of the these would include gods, angels, ghosts, demons, talking animals, virgin births, prophecies, possessions, exorcisms, afterlives of all sorts, revelation, reincarnation, transubstantiation, and superaquatic perambulation
Note:ALTRO PUZZLE DELLA RELIGIONE

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DO BELIEFS EXPLAIN BEHAVIORS?
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We believe in God, therefore we go to church.
Note:VERSIONE TRADIZIONALE....BELIF=>BEHAVIOUR

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We’re scared of Hell, therefore we pray.
Note:ALTRO ESEMPIO

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Let’s call this the belief-first model
Note:DEF

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not to be the view held by most anthropologists
Note:ANTROPOLOGI

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our beliefs cause our behaviors in many areas of life
Note:D ALTRONDE

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Debates between prominent theists and atheists, for example, typically focus on the evidence for God or the lack thereof.
Note:TIPICO DIBATTITO...MA ÈDAVVERO IMPORTANTE?

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Implicit in these debates is the assumption that beliefs are the central cause
Note:ASSUNZIONE PROBLEMATICA

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they’re often better modeled as symptoms of the underlying incentives, which are frequently social rather than psychological.
Note:LA CREDENZA

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we worship (and believe) because it helps us as social creatures.
Note:TESI

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religion is strategic,
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not all religions put such a premium on doctrine.
Note:PRIMO INDIZIO DI ATEISMO RELIGUOSO

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Most religions are fairly lax on questions of private belief
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Christianity and Islam are the exception
Note:IN QS SENSO

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Greeks and Romans, were less concerned with doctrinal propositions
Note:ESEMPIO

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Other religions, like Hinduism, Judaism, and Shintoism, are as much ethnicities and cultural traditions as they are sets of beliefs about supernatural entities,
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RELIGIONI ETNICHE E CULTURALI

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Many Jews, for example, consider themselves atheists, and yet continue practicing
Note:CASO ESTREMO

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When Muslims face Mecca to pray, we call it “religion,” but when American schoolchildren face the flag and chant the Pledge of Allegiance, that’s just “patriotism.”
Note:ALTRO INDIZIO: MOLTE ATTIVITÀ NN RELIGIOSE SONO AFFINI ALLA RELIGIONE

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Similarly, it’s hard to observe what’s happening in North Korea without comparing it to a religion;
Note:COMUNISMO

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Other focal points for quasi-religious devotion include brands (like Apple), political ideologies, fraternities and sororities, music subcultures (Deadheads, Juggalos), fitness movements (CrossFit), and of course, sports teams
Note:ALTRI ESEMPI

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thrive even in the absence of supernatural beliefs,
Note:CIÒ CHE RENDE SOSPETTO...LA CREDENZA È SECONDARIA

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we think people can generally intuit what’s good for them, even if they don’t have an analytical understanding of why it’s good for them.
Note:L ATEO DEVE ESSERE UMILE NEL GIUDICARE

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sense for their concrete self-interest,
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whenever adherents feel trapped or oppressed by their religion, as many do, they’re probably right.
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in most times and places, people feel powerfully attracted to religion.
Note:ED ECCO I FATTI

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the vast majority of weekly churchgoers are socially well-adjusted and successful across a broad range of outcomes.
Note:E NN È UN CASO SE

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smoke less,16 donate and volunteer more,17 have more social connections,18 get and stay married more,19 and have more kids.20 They also live longer,21 earn more money,22 experience less depression,23 and report greater happiness and fulfillment in their lives.
Note:I SUCCESSI

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If religions are delusions, then, they seem to be especially useful ones.
Note:CONCLUSIONE

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RELIGIONS AS SOCIAL SYSTEMS
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what kind of social incentives lead us to practice religion? The answer given by most serious scholars of religion is community.
Note:A CHE SERVE LA RELUGIONE?

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“Religion,” says Jonathan Haidt, “is a team sport.”25 “God,” says Émile Durkheim, “is society writ large.”
Note:RIPETIZIONE

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Communities provide benefits to the people living in them;
Note:LA LOGICA DELLA COMUNITA

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many other benefits require individuals to forego their narrow self-interest in the name of cooperation.
Note:Ccccc MA

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cooperation is hard.
Note:IL PROBLEMA

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cheaters
Note:IL NEMICO

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people taking advantage of church services without giving anything back,
Note:ESEMPIO DI CHEATER

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To lock in the benefits of cooperation, then, a community also needs robust mechanisms to keep cheaters at bay.
Note:COSA SERVE?

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in addition to the standard tools for norm enforcement—monitoring, gossip, and punishment—religions have a few extra tricks
Note:EXTRA TRICKS

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social technologies designed to discourage cheating
Note:SUPERNATURAL BELIF

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SACRIFICE, LOYALTY, AND TRUST
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sacrifice is socially attractive.30 Who makes a better ally: someone who’s only looking out for number one or someone who shows loyalty, a willingness to sacrifice for others’ benefit?
Note:IL SACRIFICIO...E L ALEATO IDEALE

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Friends and family make sacrifices for each other all the time.
Note:INFATTI

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solution that religions have struck upon is for members to make ritual sacrifices in the name of the group.
Note:SOLUZIONE RELIGIOSA

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rituals of sacrifice are honest signals whose cost makes them hard to fake. It’s easy to say, “I’m a Muslim,” but to get full credit, you also have to act like a Muslim
Note:PAROLE E GESTI

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Food,
Note:SACRIFICIO ANIMALE

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Money
Note:DECIMA

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Health
Note:FLAGELLAZIONE

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pleasure
Note:CASTITÀ ASTINENZA

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Time
Note:MESSA

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Status
Note:PROSTRAZIONE

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Fertility
Note:CELIBATO

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if the Pope had children, for example, his loyalty would be split between his family and his faith,
Note:ESEMPIO

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Note, however, that a community’s supply of social rewards is limited, so we’re often competing to show more loyalty than others
Note:FANATISMI E SANTITÀ

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sacrifice isn’t a zero-sum game; there are big benefits that accrue to the entire community.
Note:NO ZERO SUM

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ultimately reduces the need to monitor everyone’s behavior.
Note:SE L IMPEGNO È SERIO

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Today, we facilitate trust between strangers using contracts, credit scores, and letters of reference. But before
Note:OGGI E IERI...AGENZIA DI RATING E BUON CREDENTE

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Society can’t trust you unless you put some skin in the game.
Note:RIPETIAMO

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Americans seem unwilling to support an atheist for president.
Note:ANCORA OGGI LA STRATEGIA SI FA SENTIRE

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PROSOCIAL NORMS
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All major world religions understandably condemn theft, violence, and dishonesty, but they also celebrate positive virtues like compassion, forgiveness, and generosity.
Note:NORME PRO SOCIAL

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Charity is one of the main pillars of Islam, for example, while Christians are exhorted to “love thy neighbor”
Note:ESEMPI

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the mechanisms for norm enforcement that we saw in Chapter 3: monitoring and punishment.
Note:ENFORCEMENT IDEALE

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paying “dues” through costly rituals
Note:IL MECCANISMO RELIGIOSO....

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After you’ve paid a lot of dues, made a lot of friends, and accumulated a lot of social capital over the years, the threat of being kicked out of a group becomes especially frightening.
Note:....LA SCOMUNICA

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reduces the need for expensive monitoring.43
Note:EFFETTO BENEFICO COLLATERALE

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religions can be understood, in part, as community-enforced mating strategies.
Note:ALTRE NORME RIGUARDANO SESSO E FAMIGLIA

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early marriage, strict monogamy, and larger families.
Note:MODELLO TRADIZIONALE

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the traditional one functions best in a tight-knit community, since it benefits from strong communal norms.
Note:QUANDO FUNZIONA...TANTI FAMILIARI TANTA FIDUCIA...NESSUNO SCAPOLO PIÙ SICUREZZA

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contraception, abortion, and divorce, along with pre- and extramarital sex.
Note:I NEMICI....INTERFERISCONO SULLA MONOGAMIA E LA FERTILITÀ

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Babies will be born and raised in two-parent households, fathers will have confidence in their paternity, and everyone can spend less energy monitoring and policing their spouses for fidelity.46 High fertility also means everyone will help with child-rearing, and more generally will support and encourage family life (vs., say, careerism).
Note:I VANTAGGI

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RITUALS OF SYNCHRONY
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marching drills. This practice is useful, it turns out, not to prep for actual battle conditions, but to build trust and solidarity among soldiers in a unit.
Note:LA MARCIA DEI MILITARI

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Our species, for reasons that aren’t entirely clear, is wired to form social bonds when we move in lockstep with each other.
Note:STUDI IN ABBONDANZA

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IBM used corporate songs to instill a sense of unity among their workers.49 Some companies in Japan still use these practices today.
Note:IBM E GIAPPONESI

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Scott Wiltermuth and Chip Heath demonstrated this synchrony–solidarity effect experimentally.
Note:STUDI

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“people acting in synchrony with others cooperated more
Note:SCOPERTA

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Almost every major religious tradition involves some form of synchronized movement. Hare Krishnas, for example,
Note:ESEMPI

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Christians don’t dance as part of their worship, but early Christians did
Note:ES 2

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congregations even today continue to chant and sing in unison.
Note:TRE

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SERMONS
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sermons help promote cooperation within a religious community. Without them, how will people know which values to uphold,
Note:CHIARIMENTO

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When you attend a sermon, you’re doing more than passively acquiring information. You’re also implicitly endorsing the sermon’s message as well as the preacher’s leadership, the value of the community, and the legitimacy of the entire institution.
Note:CONOSCENZA COMUNE....LA RELIGIONE CREA SPAZI PUBBLICI

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The pews aren’t just a place to listen; they’re also a place to see and be seen by fellow churchgoers.
Note:IN SINTESI

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The real benefit, instead, comes from listening together with the entire congregation.
Note:INSIEME

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In other words, sermons generate common knowledge
Note:CONCLUSIONE

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For better or worse, this dynamic works even for controversial norms. If a preacher rails against contraception or homosexuality, for example, you might personally disagree with the message. But unless enough people “boo” the message or speak out against it, the norm will lodge itself in the common consciousness.
Note:PARADOSSO

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BADGES
Note:Tttttttttt

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distinguish insiders from outsiders.
Note:UNA RISORSA...LA DIVISA

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In a small forager band with only a handful of neighboring bands,
Note:LA GRANDE SOCIETÀ

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Thus there’s a role for badges: visible symbols that convey information about group membership.
Note:BADGES

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FYI, I’m Jewish—so we share many of the same norms and values. You can trust me. Also note that I’m endorsing our tribe conspicuously, in public. I’m fully committed to Judaism; it’s an inescapable part of my identity.
Note:COSA DICE AI SUOI CONFRATELLI IL PANETTIERE CON LA KIPPAH

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My actions here reflect not only on me as an individual, but on Jews everywhere. If I behave badly, my Jewish peers are liable to punish me for tarnishing our collective reputation. Knowing this, you can more readily trust that I’ll behave according to accepted Jewish standards of conduct.
Note:COSA DICE AI GENTILI

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badge is similar to a brand. When Nabisco puts its logo on a new product, the consumer is assured of a certain quality,
Note:BRAND

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Christians who swear on the Bible are less likely to perjure themselves,
Note:GIURAMENTO

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SUPERNATURAL BELIEFS
Note:Tttttttttt

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instead of seeing them as mere superstitions,
Note:ORA SAPPIAMO QUANTO UN DIO SIA UTILE

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the value of holding certain beliefs comes not from acting on them, but from convincing others that you believe them.
Note:IL VALORE DELLA CREDENZA

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People who believe they risk punishment for disobeying God are more likely to behave well, relative to nonbelievers.
Note:PRIMO VANTAGGIO COMUNITARIO

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(2) It’s therefore in everyone’s interests to convince others that they believe
Note:DA DOVE VIENE IL BENE

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as we saw in Chapter 5, one of the best ways to convince others of one’s belief is to actually believe it.
Note:INFINE...IL MIGLIOR MODO PER PRODURRE IL BENE

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the more we’ll develop a reputation for doing right at all times, even when other people aren’t watching.
Note:IL BENE PRODOTTO DALLA REPUTAZIONE

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This helps make sense of the belief in moralizing god(s), but leaves us with a great many other supernatural beliefs to explain.
Note:COSA RESYA FUORI

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the exact nature of the Trinity
Note:ESEMPIO

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Perhaps they function as badges—markers of loyalty to one particular religion or branch instead of another.
Note:IPOTESI

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Are you with us or against us? This is why issues of doctrine are especially pronounced when discussing religion across a divide
Note:ESEMPIO

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orthodox beliefs are like the hat and hairstyle requirements we mentioned earlier. They can be entirely arbitrary, as long as they’re consistent and distinctive.
Note:ORTODOSSIA

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Precisely because there are no selfish material reasons to prefer the Giants over the Dodgers, your support of a specific team serves as an excellent signal of loyalty to the local community.
Note:ANALOGIA RELIGIOSA

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It’s unlikely that your home team is objectively better or more entertaining than any other team, but it is your team,
Note:IO

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the craziness of religious beliefs can function as a barometer for how strong the community is—how tightly it’s able to circle around its sacred center, how strongly it rewards members for showing loyalty by suppressing good taste and common sense.
Note:BAROMETRO....LA STRAVAGANZA DEI MORMONI

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To maintain such stigmatizing beliefs in the modern era, in the face of science, the news media, and the Internet, is quite the feat of solidarity.
Note:MORMONI

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These high costs are exactly the point.
Note:THE POINT

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CELIBACY AND MARTYRDOM
Note:Tttttttttttt

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celibacy and martyrdom?
Note:COME SPIEGARLI? NN SONO CERTO ADATTIVI

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social status. Prestige, glory, and the admiration
Note:LA FORZA CHE LI SPIEGA AL MEGLIO

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a sacrifice in one domain (time and energy) in the hope of securing a larger gain in some other domain (trust).
Note:RICORDIAMO LA LOGICA DEL SACRIFICIO

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martyrs and priests as following the same instincts
Note:ISTINTO

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autopilot.
Note:ISTINTO FUORICONTROLLO...DERIVA

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instincts can lead us to bad outcomes.
Note:Ccccccc

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we seek tasty fats and sugars, which were almost always “up” (in health terms) for our ancestors
Note:UN FENOMENO BEN NOTO...ZUCCHERO E OBESI

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In military landscapes, we learn to show bravery, earning ever more respect from our comrades
Note:MILITARI E KAMIKAZE

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Drug addicts seek ever-more-pleasurable highs until they overdose.
Note:DROGATI E OVERDOSE

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in literal mountaineering, risk-taking explorers might search for higher and higher peaks
Note:ALPINISMO E 80000

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we shouldn’t jump to the conclusion that the instincts are necessarily maladaptive, or that the people acting on them are hopelessly foolish or deluded. They’re just chasing their highs,
LA DERIVA È CONFORME ALL ADATTAMENTO

venerdì 20 aprile 2018

7 Body Language

7 Body Language
Note:7@@@@@@@@@@@

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They’ll learn to listen, speak, read, and write—to
Note:DALL ASILO AL UNIVERSITÀ

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not a single hour of instruction on how to communicate with body language.
Note:LACUNA

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“over 90 percent of communication is nonverbal.”
Note:UN MITO CON UN FONDO DI VERITÀ

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serenity and anxiety, excitement and boredom, pride and shame—as
Note:COSA CI FINISCE DENTRO

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trust and distrust, self-assurance and self-doubt, intimacy and formality, loyalty and defiance.
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making friends, falling in love, and negotiating our position in a hierarchy.
Note:A COSA SERVE

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arm movements
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torso positioning,
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facial expressions, eye behaviors, touch,
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tone, timbre, volume, and speaking style.
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better at reading emotions
Note:GIÀ ALL ASILO SONO I PIÙ POPOLARI

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So why is it left out of the curriculum?
Note:MISTERO

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we’re largely unconscious of the messages we’re sending with our bodies.
Note:COMINCIAMO COL NOTARE CHE

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we might expect to be hyper-aware of it.
Note:QUEL CHE MI ASPETTO VISTA L IMPORTANZA

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Leonard Mlodinow says in Subliminal
Note:ESPERTONE

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We feel it’s appropriate for people to act spontaneously.
Note:È ANCHE UNA PREFERENZA...VOGLIAMO CHE SIA COSÌ

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Consider the glad-handing salesman who
Note:ARTEFATTO

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“I don’t know, it’s just a feeling.
Note:ANCHE LA PERCEZIONE È INCONSAPEVOLE...ANTIPATOE

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Darwin noticed this.
Note:GIÀ LUI LO NOTAVA

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One answer is that consciousness is simply too slow to manage the frenetic give-and-take of body language.
Note:PRIMA POSSIBILE RISPOSYA

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Consciousness is also too narrow.
Note:FARE UNA COSA ALLA VOLTA

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humans are strategically blind to body language because it often betrays our ugly, selfish, competitive motives.
Note:LA RISPOSTA...INCONSCIO XCHÈ MENO SOGGETTO A IPOCRISIA

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Alex Pentland and Tracy Heibeck,
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most are honest, providing benefit to both senders and receivers.
Note | Location: 1,870
SEGNALE

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A cue is similar to a signal, in that it conveys information, except that it benefits only the receiver.
Note:UN BENEFICIAT

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sweaty palms
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shortness of breath
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rubbing one’s neck
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poker players or police interrogators
Note:I MASSIMI ESPERTI

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HONEST SIGNALS: WHY ACTIONS SPEAK LOUDER THAN WORDS
Note:Tttttttttt

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“No, I can’t explain the dance to you. If I could say it, I wouldn’t have to dance it.”—Isadora Duncan
Note:ARTE AUTENTICA

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they aren’t anchored to anything fundamental.
Note:LA PAROLA È UN SIMBOLO ARBITRARIO

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“thank you,” instead of “merci”
Note:PWRCHÈ? BHO

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Body language, however, is mostly not arbitrary.
Note:AL CONTRARIO

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We show emotional excitement, for example, by being physically excited:
Note:ESEMPIO

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we show interest by widening our eyes
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signals are shared across cultures.
Note:SPESSO

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body “language” isn’t just a way to communicate. It’s also functional; it has material consequences. If we lunge aggressively toward another person, for instance, we better be prepared to fight.
Note:FUNZIONALE QUINDI ONESTO

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inherently more honest than verbal
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Signals need to be expensive so they’re hard to fake.
Note:HARD TO FAKE

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differentially expensive—
Note:DEVONO CREARE INA GERARCHIA

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Larger and healthier males are capable of making deeper, louder, and more frequent calls—
Note:IL RICHIAMO AMOROSO DEL KOALA

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This helps guarantee their honesty,
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An open posture makes a person vulnerable,
Note:SEGNALE ONESTO DI PACE

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to hug someone when you feel threatened by them,
Note:ANCORA

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it’s this quality—honesty—that makes body language an ideal medium
Note:IL MEDIUM IDEALE

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SEX
Note:Ttttttttttttt ######################

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our ancestors were mating for millions of years before learning to speak,
Note:ANTENATI

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flirting, come-ons, playing coy, seduction
Note:ATTIVITÀ DOVE IL BL È CENTRALE

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encouraging sexual modesty.
Note:IN TUTTE LOE VULTURE

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not to advertise
Note:NASCONDERE

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norms are crucial to keeping the peace,
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crucial to keeping the peace,
Note:FUNZIONW

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husbands and wives
Note:PARTI IN CAMPO

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ex-lovers
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new lovers,
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parents
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we find ways to skirt the norm of modesty.
Note:MA

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flirting discreetly, dressing suggestively,
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dressing suggestively,
Note:MEZZI

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“I think you’re cute,”
Note:NESSUNO DIRÀ MAI

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the entire pas de deux is choreographed nonverbally—a
Note:XOREOGRAFIA

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eye contact.
Note:FONDAMEMTALE

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intense and prolonged
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especially hard for third parties to notice,
Note:IL PUNTO DI FORZA

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uncross her arms,
Note:LEI

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smile invitingly,
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turn her body toward
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mirror each other’s posture.
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bubble of personal space
Note:ISOLARSI

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touch each other,
Note:SULLA SPALLA

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dance floor,
Note:MISURARE IL COORDINAMENTO

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—Ben might remain oblivious to Alison’s
Note:BACIAMI STUPIDO

Note | Location: 1,943
LUI UN PO TONTO...LEI BACIAMI STUPIDI

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much of the thrill and drama of courtship lies in struggling to decipher the other’s mixed signals.
Note:IL BELLO

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“play coy,” attempting to hide
Note:LEI GIOCA ALLA RITROSA

Note | Location: 1,947
LA DONNA

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requiring men to put more effort
Note:MESSAGGIO IMPLICITO

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Sexual jealousy is another cross-cultural human universal,
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jealousy is another cross-cultural human universal,
Note:ALTRI UNIVERSALE

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mate-guarding.
Note:ATTIVITÀ DISSIMULATA

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“tie-signs”—
Note:IMPEGNATI...ES MANO NELLA MANO

Note | Location: 1,951
È MIA

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handholding,
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arm-on-shoulder,
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Pheromones
Note:ODORE E AMORE

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ants and bees to pigs and dogs,
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Farmers, for example, can buy a pheromone that causes female pigs
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buy a pheromone that causes female pigs to assume a mating stance.
Note:MONTA

Note | Location: 1,958
TECNICA DEL FATTORE

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Women asked to smell T-shirts worn by different men were more attracted to men who had complementary immune systems
Note:BENEFICO PER I FIGLI

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gay men preferred the sweat of other gay
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there’s at least some chemical basis
Note:UN MINIMO È INNEGABILE

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POLITICS
Note:Tttttttttt

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social grooming among primates isn’t just a hygienic activity;
Note:COME L ANTENATO TESSEVA LE SUE ALLEANZE

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picking dirt and parasites
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primates forge alliances
Note:LEVANDO SPORCO E PARASSITI

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brushing, braiding, and other haircare activities.
Note:ABBIAMO MENO PELI MA LI UTILIZZIAMO ALLA STESSA MANIERA

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!Kung San hunter-gatherers of southern Africa,
Note:COME LE DONNE FORMANO GRUPPI ESCLUSIVI

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pat, pet, cuddle, hug, shake hands, clasp shoulders, and kiss
Note:GESTI COMUNI

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We hunch our shoulders or cross our arms.
Note:POSIZIONE DI ALLERTA...SE CI SENTIAMO MINACCIATI

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we let our guards down—
Note:IN PRESENZA DI AMICI

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vulnerable posture,
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showing our palms,
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relaxing our shoulders
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We narrow our eyelids
Note:OCCHI...QUANDO PEECEPIAMO UNA MINACCIA

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quick nod and “eyebrow flash”
Note:QUANDO RICONOSCIAMO L AMICO

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mimicry
Note:COPIARE E LEADERSHIP

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call-and-response routines common in religious
Note:Es

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the boss who initiates the end of a meeting,
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a faux pas for a subordinate to get up and leave
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“turn our backs”
Note:METAFORA X TRADIMENTO

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“open up.”
Note:METAFORA X CONFIDENZA

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handshake,
Note:DUE SALUTI...1 OGGI

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hand-kiss,
Note:2 IERI

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Shaking hands is symmetric and fundamentally egalitarian;
Note:L ALTRE È SOTTOMISSIONE

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press his lips on another person’s (potentially germ-ridden)
Note:METTEESI A RISCHIO

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liable to glance over his shoulder, lean in, and lower his voice.
Note:PRIMA DI UN PETTEGOLEZZO MALEVOLO

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what he’s about to say requires discretion.
Note:SIGNIFICATO

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He’s letting you know that he trusts you
Note:FIDUCIA

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SOCIAL STATUS
Note:Ttttttttt

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obsessed with our status, taking great pains to earn it, gauge it, guard it, and flaunt it.
Note:LA NOSTRA OSSESSIONE

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high-status individuals have less to worry about in social situations.
Note:PIÙ RILASSATI

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speak clearly, move smoothly,
Note:GLI AFFERMATI

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more open posture.
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constantly monitor the environment
Note:INFERIORI

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prepared to defer
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speak hesitantly, move warily,
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“Look at me!” strategy is known as aposematism.
Note:LA CONFIDENZA DEI PRESTIGIOSI...ATTACCAMI!....TIPICA DELL ANIMALE DOMINANTE

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more likely to get attacked—
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the biggest male lion
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why poisonous animals, like coral reef snakes and poison dart frogs, wear bright warning colors.
Note:ECCO SPIEGATO PERCHÈ

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wearing bright clothes,
Note:TRA GLI UOMINI TECNICHE APO

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sparkling jewelry,
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shoes that clack loudly
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headdresses,
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blaring boom box
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take up more space,
Note:IL PIÙ PRESTIGIOSO

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hold eye contact
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speak with fewer pauses,
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interrupt more frequently,
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set the pace and tenor of interaction.
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typically defer
Note:CHI STA N BASSO

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granting him or her more leeway,
Note:FARE SPAZIO ALL ALTRO QUANDO SI CAMMINA

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accommodate to match the gait of the higher-status
Note:IL PASSO

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social awkwardness
Note | Location: 2,040
ESITO DEL MANCATO ACCORDO SULLO STATUS...IMBRANATURA

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sitting across from a rival colleague,
Note:DISAGIO

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how we change our tone of voice
Note:Ttttttttt

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25 interviews on the Larry King Live show.
Note:OGGETTO DI UNO STUDIO

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Larry King adjusted his vocal patterns
Note:CHIOCCIO CON I PRESTIGIOSI

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the relative social status of the two candidates—as measured by tone-of-voice accommodation—accurately predicted who would win the popular vote
Note:ELEZIONE PRESIDENTE...STUDIO DEI DIBATTITI

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dominance and prestige.
Note:DUE VARIANTI DELLO STATUS

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able to intimidate others—
Note:DOMINANZA

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won by force,
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avoidance instincts:
Note:CODA TRA LE GAMBE

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doing impressive things or having impressive traits—
Note:PRESTIGIO

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Meryl Streep or Albert Einstein.
Note:ESEMPI

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approach instincts.
Note:MIO CUGGINO

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eye contact is considered an act of aggression.
Note:SE CI CFR CON UN DOMINANTE

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“stealing” quick, furtive glances.
Note:IL SOTTOMESSO

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personal information as the key resource that dominant individuals
Note:FONTE DEL POTERE

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eye contact is considered a gift:
Note:QUANDO LO STATUS VIENE DAL PRESTIGIO

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attention (rather than information) is the key resource,
Note:LA FONTE DEL PRESTIGIO

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status one of the trickier domains for humans to navigate.
Note:PRESTIGIO E DOMINIO SI MESCOLANO RENDENDO TUTTO PIÙ COMPLICATI

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one of the best predictors of dominance is the ratio of “eye contact while speaking” to “eye contact while listening.”
Note:PREDITTORE DI DOMINANZA

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visual dominance ratio.
Note:BATTESIMO

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for the same fraction of time while speaking and listening, your visual dominance ratio will be 1.0,
Note:ALTA DOMINANZA

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low dominance.
Note:0,

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Rarely do we have to ask ourselves, consciously, “How should I hold my arms?
Note:ttttttttTUTTO INCONSCIO

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WHY WE’RE UNAWARE OF BODY LANGUAGE
Note:Tttttttttttt

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at odds with the interests of others, which can easily lead to conflict. That’s why societies have so many norms
Note:NORMARE I POTENZIALI CONFLITTI

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body language gives us just the cover we need.
Note:PACIFICATORE

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it’s considerably more ambiguous.
Note:UNA CARATTERISTICA DEL BL

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a feature rather than a bug—
Note:MA L AMBIGUITÀ HA UNA FUNZIONE

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crass to announce, “I’m the most important person in the room”—
Note:GENEREREBBE CCONFLITTI

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simply by splaying out on a couch or staring at people while talking to them.
Note:SOSTITUTI DISCRETI

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“I’m attracted to you,”
Note:ALTRO ANNUNCIO FASTIDIOSO

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a smile, a lingering glance, or a friendly touch on the wrist
Note:SOSTITUTI

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plausible deniability
Note:LASIARE APERTA UNA PORTA DI SICUREZZA

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easier to avoid accusations
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his accuser has misread the situation.
Note:DIFESA TIPICA

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if his wife accuses him,
Note:ACCUSA DI FLIRTARE

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Peter himself may not even be fully aware
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Body language also facilitates discretion by being less quotable to third parties,
Note:DIFFICILE DA SPIEGARE...DA FORMALIZZARE

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if Peter had asked his flirting partner out for a drink, word might get back to his wife—
Note:LE PAROLE SONO PROVE CERTE

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It allows us to pursue illicit agendas,
Note:L AGENDA ILLECITA

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reasons we’re strategically unaware
Note:ECCO XCHÈ NN S IMPARA E NN SI INSEGNA

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reluctant to teach it
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