9 Numbers
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9.1 Cardinal numbers as properties
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what is a number?
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A cardinal number is a kind of property.1 These properties are best ‘defined ostensively’, that is, by giving examples.
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I would show them something like Figure 9.1. In that picture, there are two stars, two hexagons, and two lightning bolts.
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It is no coincidence that this is how children are actually taught
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The ontological status of the number two is thus the same as that of other universals,
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9.2 Frege’s objection
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the same concrete thing can be said to instantiate different numbers. Suppose you have a deck of cards. What is the number that it instantiates? Well, it is one deck, but it is fifty-two cards.
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Therefore, number is not a property of a concrete object, such as the deck of cards. Instead, Frege proposes, numbers must be properties of ‘concepts’
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SOLUZIONE FREGE...OB IDWALISTA...ACCETFABILW IMO
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we resolve the puzzle of the deck of cards by saying that there are two distinct concepts: the concept ‘deck’ (or maybe, ‘deck that is on this table now’) and the concept ‘card’ (or, ‘card that is on this table now’),
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Cantor and Russell, on the other hand, would ditch the talk of concepts and say that there are two distinct sets:
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Each number is a property of a concrete particular
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there is only one number that is capable of being a property of a concrete particular, and that is the number 1. It is logically impossible, for example, for the number 2 to be a property of a concrete object; the number 2 can only be a property of two concrete objects.
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it is not that twoness applies to the set {a,b};
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If we’re talking about the aggregate of the cards, that instantiates the number 1.
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9.3 Arithmetical operations
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‘Two apples plus three apples make five apples’ means something like this: if you have two apples, and you also have three more apples (that is, three that are each different from either of the original two), then you have five apples.
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It is not, for example, a matter of bringing the apples into spatial proximity.
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Adding two apples to three apples is solely a matter of considering two apples and, without making any changes to any of the apples, considering an additional three apples,
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There is not even any passage of time assumed:
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This is why arithmetical statements are necessary and knowable a priori.
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9.4 The laws of arithmetic
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a+b = b+a (Commutative Law of Addition)
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Why do these hold, and how do we know them? In essence, the reason why (a + b) is equal to (b + a) is that the expressions ‘(a + b)’ and ‘(b + a)’ are synonymous:
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9.5 Zero
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If the number n is instantiated by n things, then the number zero must be instantiated by zero things. But there cannot be a property that,
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Reply: zero is not the same kind of thing as one, two, three, and so on.
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zero is not a number.
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if I have zero cookies, I should not say, ‘I have a number of cookies’;
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It is no coincidence that the concept of zero has a quite different history
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Objection: ‘But we can do arithmetical operations using zero. How could that be, if zero is not a true number,
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When we decide to extend the number system by including zero, we define arithmetical operations for zero in such a way as to keep the whole system coherent.
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Famously, there is one case in which we do not define the arithmetical operations for zero, namely, the case of division.
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what is the referent of ‘0’ in its noun usage?
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LA DOMANDA CHE RESTA
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The answer is that the symbol does not require a referent to be meaningful. In the same way that the noun ‘nothing’ lacks a referent,
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The point is simply that ‘zero’ functions differently in some important ways from ‘one’, ‘two’,
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9.6 A digression on large numbers
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there are about 1080 atoms in the observable universe;
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Now we can define another operation known as ‘tetration’, symbolized by ‘↑↑’, to represent repeated exponentiation.
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After that, there is the operation of pentation (symbolized by ‘↑↑↑’), which is repeated tetration.
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9.7 Magnitudes and real numbers
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9.7.1 Magnitudes vs. numbers
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The concept of magnitude is probably undefinable,
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the height of the Eiffel Tower, the temperature of a cup of coffee, the mass of the Milky Way Galaxy.
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properties of concrete objects.
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refers to a dimension
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refers to a particular value
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Magnitude values are represented using real numbers. The magnitudes, however, are not themselves numbers.
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The Eiffel Tower is approximately 324 meters tall, which is to say about 1063 feet tall. If the height of the Tower is a number, which one is it? Is it around 324, or around 1063?
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the number that we use to represent the height of the Tower is not a property of the tower. But the height is a property of the tower. So the height is not a number.
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9.7.2 Real numbers as relationships
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What, then, is a real number?
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start with how we use real numbers to describe the world.
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Eiffel Tower is 324 meters tall.
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‘324’ records a relationship between the height of the Tower and a unit,
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The metaphysical background is that magnitude values come in classes that are comparable to each other.
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When a magnitude is greater than another magnitude, this greaterness comes in degrees.
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9.7.3 In defense of the bifurcated account of number
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‘324 is a real number, since an object could be exactly 324 times as long as the standard meter. 324 is also a natural number. But on your account, a natural number is a property, whereas a real number is a relationship.
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It turns out that there are two numbers 324: the cardinal number and the real number.
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Now you might wonder: why not take a uniform view of cardinal numbers and real numbers?
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Frege’s deck-of-cards problem by saying that the same physical aggregate is differently related to two different units: it bears the ‘52-fold’ relationship to the unit ‘card’, while bearing the ‘one-fold’ relationship to the unit ‘deck’.
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The relationship theory requires that there be an object to be the first relatum, that is, the thing that is supposed to stand in a relationship to a unit.
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suppose there are seven reasons for being suspicious of set theory.
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an object that has each of the seven reasons as parts?
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9.7.4 Measures and magnitudes
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measure theory,
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9.7.5 Intensive vs. extensive magnitudes
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Extensive magnitudes are those that are additive across the parts of an object.
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the magnitude values of all of these parts will contribute additively to the magnitude value of the whole.
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length is an extensive magnitude.
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Similarly for volume:
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Intensive magnitudes, by contrast, are magnitudes that do not arise from adding together the magnitudes of the parts of an object,
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For example, the temperature
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There may be ambiguous cases. Consider the property of mass.
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9.7.6 Natural vs. artificial magnitudes
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schmass of an object is defined to be the reciprocal of 3 minus the object’s mass in kilograms:
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I will soften that a bit and simply call schmass an ‘artificial’ magnitude,
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As a first approximation, I will take causal efficacy as the test of naturalness.
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9.8 Indexing uses of numbers
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suppose you are in a hotel, in room 210.
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indicating that there are 210 of something;
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indicating that something is 210 times greater than
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‘210’ is simply being used as a name for that room.
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a number term being used in a way that does not really refer to a number.
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This is what I refer to as an indexing use of numbers. In an indexing use, some number is used as a name for a more or less arbitrary item or value,
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9.9.1 Rational vs. irrational numbers
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9.9.2 Negative numbers
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9.9.3 Imaginary numbers
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x2 = −1’.
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One cannot conjure such a number into existence just by fiat, as the standard approach seems to suppose. Trying to solve the equation ‘x2 = −1’ by inventing a new number is like trying to solve the equation ‘x + 1 = x’ by inventing a new number,
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9.9.4 Infinitesimal numbers
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An infinitesimal number is a number that is smaller than any positive real number but yet greater than zero.
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