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lunedì 13 gennaio 2020

IN SELLA

IN SELLA

Di politica non ho mai capito molto, ogni volta che ho puntato su un cavallo mi sono ritrovato disarcionato; mi dicono che dovrei ripassare la lezione di Machiavelli, che dovrei abbandonare il mio romanticismo, che la politica non ha nulla a che vedere con la “policy ideale”, che ha regole sue proprie. Le regole per salire al potere sono diverse da quelle per restare al potere che sono diverse da quelle per governare bene. Essere competente nelle policy non ci dice ancora nulla sulla nostra competenza in politica. La politica riguarda il potere, non il bene pubblico. Non capire la politica puo’ essere persino una virtù, vivere trascurandola è ok, ci migliora, è consigliabile, soprattutto a un giovane; tuttavia sento una simile ignoranza come un vuoto. Eccomi qui allora a buttare giù qualche appunto da cui partire.

1) Ci sono regole per salire al potere e regole per starci. Le regole per governare bene non hanno nulla a che vedere con la politica poiché non è il buon governo a tenerti in sella. Il politico è a caccia del potere e, quando lo conquista, comincia per lui a regnare una lunga attesa. Cosa aspetta con timore e tremore? La deposizione.

2) Per ritardare la caduta è necessario foraggiare una coalizione di supporter. Un leader saggio non conta troppo su coloro che l’hanno aiutato nella scalata. Ricordatevi dei molto amici di Fidel Castro, un leader particolarmente longevo. Il loro destino è istruttivo.

3) La lezione politica più illuminante non l’ho avuta leggendo di politica ma di business (non c’è molta differenza): l’ascesa e la caduta di Carly Fiorina, CEO di Hewlett-Packard. Partiamo dalle basi: per ogni politico ci sono 1) elettori, 2) grandi elettori e 3) alleati. Gli elettori sono “intercambiabili”, i grandi elettori sono “influenti” e gli alleati sono “essenziali”. Per un manager il panorama è simile: azionisti, grandi azionisti e alleati nel CDA.

4) Nel caso di HP, il blocco influente era particolarmente ristretto poiché William Hewlett e David Packard mantenevano pacchetti azionari significativi. Piccoli cambiamenti potevano determinare grandi smottamenti. Se uno si alzava con il piede sbagliato…

5) Regola generale: il boss puo’ distribuire benefici privati (agli “essenziali”) o benefici pubblici (agli “intercambiabili”). In una corporation i benefici privati sono generalmente sotto forma di compensazione personale, stipendio, vantaggi e stock options. Quelli pubblici sono i dividendi e il capital gain. In HP gli “essenziali” erano un pugno di senior management molto ascoltati e qualche membro del CDA (tra le cui funzioni c’è quella di nominare, conservare o rimuovere i CEO). In HP il fondatore David Packard fu un CEO longevo e fu sostituito nel 1992 da un addetto ai lavori, Lewis Platt, che si ritirò nel 1999 sostituito infine dall’ “esterna” Carly Fiorina.

6) Dovrebbe essere ovvio che tutti i membri del consiglio coinvolti nell’ estromissione dell’ex CEO possono essere un problema anche per il nuovo CEO: chi ti ha creato, puo’ distruggerti (se non lo distruggi prima tu). Il tempo in carica, poi, si allunga se i legami personali con gli “essenziali” sono stretti. Per questo i cda sono pieni di parenti e amici. Al contrario, la presenza di outsider in un consiglio si traduce in rendimenti migliori per gli azionisti, ma anche in un rischio per il CEO, che non ha un interesse allineato a quello dei proprietari.

7) La Fiorina, in carica dal 1999 al 2005, prima di essere rimossa, è stata il bersaglio di una lotta per procura organizzata da Walter Hewlett e David Woodley Packard, figli dei fondatori di HP e persone con grandi interessi finanziari in HP. Nota che il membro del CDA grosso azionista è più preoccupato per le prestazioni complessive di HP che per tutti i vantaggi privati ​​che derivano dall’essere membri di un board.

8) Dopo che Fiorina salì al potere, il cda era composto da un consistente gruppo di membri interni che non erano di sua scelta e che avevano grosse quote azionarie. Un bel problema: gente del genere non la taciti alzandogli lo stipendio, i loro interessi sono altrove. Inoltre, poteva contare su pochi “intimi”, ovvero gente a lei leale. Nel 2000 comincio’ l’opera di snellimento del CDA e nel 2001 era del 30 percento rispetto al consiglio che aveva ereditato originariamente. Anche il Packard aveva mollato.

9) Nel 2002 la Fiorina si giocava tutto lanciando la fusione con Compaq e presentandola come un vantaggio per HP e i suoi azionisti. Ma guardiamo ai numeri: il giorno prima dell’annuncio della nomina di Carly Fiorina a nuovo CEO di HP, le azioni di HP erano scambiate a $ 53,43. Poi iniziò un declino e scesero a meno di $ 39 (metà ottobre 1999), circa tre mesi dopo. All’inizio di aprile 2000, le azioni di HP erano aumentate notevolmente a circa $ 78. Dopo cominciò il periodo nero, il prezzo delle azioni andò in tilt, toccando il fondo nel settembre 2002 a circa $ 12 per azione sottoperformando i principali indici di borsa. Il rimbalzo successivo fu solo fino a $ 20. La Fiorina fu licenziata. Cosa era andato storto?

10) Per quanto riguarda la fusione Compaq, il mercato è stato pessimista. Dal punto di vista di qualsiasi grande investitore in HP, comprese le famiglie Hewlett e Packard, le iniziative della Fiorina furono un disastro. La fusione era stata interpretata come una sfida agli azionisti anziché come un piano economico razionale. I mercati non amano le lotte interne e quando Walter Hewlett e David Woodley Packard dichiararaono la loro opposizione alla fusione, il destino fu segnato.

11) Le fusioni sono un’occasione per rivedere i board e accrescere il potere di chi è in carica in quel momento, evidentemente le famiglie dei fondatori avevano interpretato in questo modo la mossa della Fiorina. Inoltre, in HP i membri del consiglio erano anche azionisti potenti e non potevano essere tacitati con premi privati. La Fiorina contava sul fatto che, una volta concluso l’accordo, avrebbe potuto portare alcuni dirigenti Compaq nel board di HP, un’occasione preziosa per indebolire la fazione del consiglio che le si opponeva. Ma una mossa del genere deve contare sul fattore sorpresa ed essere presentata alle “vittime” come fatto compiuto, in caso contrario il rischio è grande. Purtroppo, la grande burocrazia che c’è dietro queste manovre (pensiamo alla documentazione da presentare alla SEC) impedisce di viaggiare a fari spenti.

12) Il consiglio post-fusione era di undici membri e includeva cinque nuovi membri importati da Compaq. Occorreva “comprarli” e nel 2004 lo stipendio dei consiglieri venne raddoppiato portandolo a $ 200.000. In sintesi: dividendi costanti, quotazioni in ribasso e stipendi dei consiglieri raddoppiati. La Fiorina voleva comprare lealtà ma nel board aveva azionisti i cui interessi dipendevano dai mercati più che dallo stipendio e i mercati rimanevano pessimisti. Sotto questa enorme pressione la Fiorina si dimise.

13) La lezione più generale: l’obiettivo è governare, non governare bene. Anche Mark Hurd, il CEO successivo, fu fatto fuori per scandali personali. Fece un buon lavoro ma a nulla valse per la sua sopravvivenza politica. La meritocrazia non sembra una variabile decisiva in politica. L’autocrate – ma non solo – non è interessato al buon governo, non guarda a cio’ che è buono per tutti ma a cio’ che è buono per lui. Non solo, le persone competenti e brillanti sono i rivali più insidiosi, occorre farli fuori quanto prima. Meglio circondarsi di persone leali. Le tre caratteristiche più importanti dell’alleato: (1) Lealtà; (2) Lealtà; (3) Lealtà. Meglio scegliere tra amici di lunga data o familiari. Rispetto alla Fiorina, Fidel Castro fu un maestro.

14) Saddam Hussein in Iraq, come Idi Amin in Uganda e tanti altri leader nazionali, iniziarono come teppistelli di strada, ma ebbero l’accortezza di scegliersi alleati ottusi ma leali installandoli nelle posizioni più importanti – quelle dove potere e denaro scorrono a fiumi. Ma anche l’accortezza di liberarsi dei sodali più brillanti con cui avevano dato l’assalto al potere. Saddam sapeva dove erano i soldi (il petrolio). Una volta al potere, potò spietatamente la sua base di supporto e arricchì i meno capaci. Pensava giustamente: ogni rivoluzione ha la sua contro controrivoluzione ed è necessario depotenziarla non appena si arriva nella stanza dei bottoni, chi può portarti sullo scranno, puo’ farti anche cadere. Tra gli epurati da Saddam vi erano professori, ufficiali militari, avvocati, giudici, imprenditori, giornalisti, leader religiosi e molti altri uomini istruiti e di talento. Tra i sopravvissuti c’erano persone come il cugino “Chemical Ali”, ovvero Ali Hassan al-Majid, uno sciagurato lealissimo che aveva sterminato i curdi. Prima faceva il ragazzo delle consegne e non aveva nessuna istruzione formale, la sua principale area di competenza divenne l’omicidio. Ma Saddam non è certo un’eccezione: Il suo successore, il primo ministro Nouri al-Maliki, eliminò i servizi di sicurezza sunniti appena in carica. Entrambi i leader sapevano che era meglio avere vicino incompetenti leali rispetto a rivali competenti.

15) Tuttavia, avere consulenti competenti è inevitabile se non si vuole finire nel pozzo. In oriente il problema è stato risolto ricorrendo agli eunuchi. Nella sostanza occorre scegliere consulenti stretti che per ragioni oggettive non possano scavalcarti. Non è certo una coincidenza che Saddam Hussein, in quanto presidente dell’Iraq islamico, abbia avuto un cristiano, Tariq Aziz, come il suo numero due.

16) Il modo migliore per rimanere al potere è mantenere piccola la coalizione e, soprattutto, assicurarsi che tutti sappiano di essere sostituibili. Per questo nei paesi governati da tiranni ci sono continuamente elezioni: le elezioni non vengono truccate tanto per confermare il leader, quanto per far avvertire ai politici potenti quanto possono essere facilmente sacrificabili se si discostano dalla linea. Vladimir Ilyich Lenin fu il primo a sfruttare questa idea: qualsiasi azione da lui intrapresa – tipo inviare in Siberia un personaggio scomodo – era volontà del popolo. Le elezioni truccate presentano un altro vantaggio: tutti potrebbero, con una probabilità molto piccola, diventare segretari generali del Partito Comunista, proprio come il piccolo criminale Joseph Stalin o l’ignorante Nikita Krusciov. La fusione con Compaq non aveva ragioni economiche, era un modo per manipolare la composizione del board, ovvero un modo per truccare le elezioni in un paese avanzato. Praticamente ogni società quotata in borsa utilizza questi stratagemmi, siamo nella fisiologia del potere. La sfortuna della Fiorina fu quella di avere una grande concentrazione delle azioni in poche mani, un azionariato disperso non si sarebbe interessato granché alle sue manovre, questo lo avrebbe saputo anche il mercato che sarebbe stato meno severo con lei.

17) Gorbaciov ha costretto gli avversari, come Boris Eltsin, a uscire dal politburo. Sicuramente Stalin avrebbe fatto fuori un tipo del genere. Tutti sfidarono il tenero Gorby, era conveniente farlo, e alla fine cadde. Nessuno sfida Mobutu Sese Seko in Zaire o anche Deng Xiaoping in Cina.

18) Hitler divenne cancelliere della Germania il 30 gennaio 1933. Durante la sua ascesa al potere si affidò alle SA, una forza paramilitare con a capo Ernst Rohm. Ma Hitler percepiva il leader della SA come una minaccia, nonostante il suo sostegno decisivo. Nella notte dei lunghi coltelli lo sostituì con Heinrich Himmler e le sue SS, che riteneva più leali.

19) Robert Mugabe è stato eletto presidente dello Zimbabwe nel 1980 a seguito di un accordo negoziato dopo una lunga guerra civile. Le due forze in campo: 1) ZANU (Unione nazionale africana dello Zimbabwe) di Robert Mugabe e 2) ZAPU (Unione popolare africana dello Zimbabwe) di Joshua Nkomo. All’inizio predicò la riconciliazione ma una volta consolidato il potere di ZANU, non c’era più motivo per essere leali con ZAPU. Allo stesso modo inizialmente fece l’occhiolino ai bianchi contattando molti membri di quella comunità (che in quel periodo lo chiamava “il vecchio zio Bob”), non poteva gestire il paese senza di loro ma soprattutto aveva bisogno di sapere dove fossero i soldi. Tuttavia, una volta terminato l’apprendistato, l’atteggiamento di Mugabe mutò e nel 1981 ottenne uno stato a partito unico e iniziò ad arrestare i bianchi dicendo “stermineremo quei serpenti bianchi che infestano il nostro paese”. Mugabe fu particolarmente duro anche nei confronti dei suoi ex compagni d’armi. Ha costretto Nkomo a uscire dal gabinetto di governo e ha inviato un gruppo paramilitare addestrato nella Corea del Nord, la Quinta Brigata, a terrorizzare Matabeleland, roccaforte regionale del suo ex amicone.

20) Guardando ai dittatori vedi la politica nella sua purezza, ma anche le domocrazie non scherzano, sebbene debbano sopportare elezioni reali. Tuttavia, anche loro, ogni volta che possono, sono felici di copiare il compagno Lenin. Tutte le volte che vengono create regole elettorali per mettere al bando le pratiche corrotte, i politici trovano nuovi mezzi per manipolare i risultati. Possono ridisegnare i collegi prima delle elezioni, possono limitare il diritto di voto, possono cambiare sistema elettorale a seconda delle convenienze. Le democrazie hanno escogitato un numero di scappatoie perfettamente legali per garantire stabilità nei governi.

21) In Malesia l’immigrazione è controllata in modo da creare un elettorato favorevole alla parte governativa. E’ impressionante vedere comel’immigrato venga reclutato appena lascia la barca giunta in porto giusto qualche giorno prima delle elezioni.

22) Gli stati dell’India del nord, come Bihar e Uttar Pradesh, sperimentano ogni volta la “cattura del seggio”, una pratica per cui i delegati di partito catturano il seggio elettorale dirottando gli esiti a senso unico. Qui lo scrutatore diventa di fatto un grande elettore. L’elezione si decide alla nomina degli scrutatori.

23) Un altro modo per incollarsi al trono consiste nell’incoraggiare la concorrenza. Esempio: il parlamento e la presidenza della Tanzania sono perennemente controllati dal partito Chama Cha Mapinduzi (CCM), anche se ben diciassette partiti partecipano abitualmente alle elezioni libere della Tanzania. Il fatto è che il partito in carica ha uno zoccolo duro e, non appena si accorge di rischiare, moltiplica i partiti in lizza diluendo la potenza degli avversari. Altro trucco: esagerare con i seggi designati per le minoranze. In questo modo i seggi dell’opposizione si riducono: la Tanzania ha elezioni libere, ma la realtà è che il partito in carica del CCM può sostenersi in carica con appena il 5 percento dei voti.

24) C’è poi il voto di scambio, ovvero il fenomeno dei “Signori del voto”. Un piccolo gruppo di notabili locali o patrocinatori negoziano con la politica il voto della loro comunità per ottenendone grandi ricompense. La ricerca del potere unita all’influenza dei blocchi di potere ha minato qualsiasi idea del perseguimento di principi politici nobili. L’affiliazioni tra elettori e partiti non deve avere necessariamente ragioni ideologiche. L’India è probabilmente il paese dove questa pratica tocca l’estremo: partiti ideologicamente opposti governano tranquillamente insieme. Il raja, proprietario di gran parte degli interessi minerari nel Bihar, per esempio, cambia partito ogni mese a seconda del miglior offerente: ogni volta che cambia, guadagna qualcosa personalmente.

25) Bibliografia.

venerdì 31 maggio 2019

HL 2 Coming to Power

2 Coming to Power
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Born in a remote part of Liberia’s interior and virtually illiterate,
Note:JOHN DOE....DITRATORE LIBERIANO

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moved out of the West African jungle in search of work. He headed to the capital city, Monrovia,
Note:ARRIVA

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As the president slept, he seized the day, bayoneted the president, threw his entrails to the dogs, and declared himself Liberia’s new president.
Note:SI ARRUOLÒ E DURANTE IL SUO SERVIZIO COLSE LA SUA OCCASIONE

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Doe had scaled the fence at the Executive Mansion, hoping to confront the president and find out why they had not been paid.
Note:XCHÈ ERA CAPITATO LÌ

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Tolbert’s True Whig Party, a political regime created by slaves repatriated from America in 1847.
Note:IL PREDECESSORE

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He immediately rounded up thirteen cabinet ministers, who were then publically executed on the beach
Note:TRATTFAMENTO DEGLI AVVERSARI

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Doe had no idea what a president was supposed to do and even less idea of how to govern a country.
Note:SAPEVA SOLO PRENDERE IL POTERE

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He increased the pay of army privates from $85 to $250 per month.
Note:PAGARE X LA LEALTÀ

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revenues from Firestone, which leased large tracts of land for rubber;
Note:LA FONTE DEL DENARO

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He was lazy, and spent his days hanging out with the wives of his presidential guards. The economy collapsed, foreign debt soared, and criminal enterprises became virtually the only successful
Note:NN SAPEVA GOVERNARE

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Little wonder that the people of Liberia ended up hating Doe.
Note:UNICA ATTIVITÀ IL RICICLAGGIO

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And yet, provided he knew where the money was and who needed paying off,
Note:GOOD MANTRA...IL SEGRETO DI OGNI DITTATORE

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Paths to Power with Few Essentials
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First, he must remove the incumbent. Second, he needs to seize the apparatus of government. Third, he needs to form a coalition of supporters sufficient to sustain him as the new incumbent.
Note:LE TRE COSE CHE DEVE FARE UN DITTATORE

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The first, and easiest, is for the leader to die.
Note:TRE POSSIBILI RIMOZIONI....PRIMA

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a challenger can make an offer to the essential members of the incumbent’s coalition
Note:SECONDA

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current political system can be overwhelmed from the outside, whether by military defeat by a foreign power, or through revolution
Note:TERZO

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The most critical factor behind Mubarak’s defeat in February 2011 was the decision by Egypt’s top generals to allow demonstrators to take to the streets without fear of military suppression.
Note:LA LEALTÀ È DECISIVA

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revolutions occur when those who preserve the current system are sufficiently dissatisfied with their rewards
Note:SOLDI

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Speed Is Essential
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Once the old leader is gone, it is essential to seize the instruments of power, such as the treasury, as quickly as possible.
Note:IMPOSSESSARSI DELLA CASSA

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Samuel Doe ruled because his group had the guns. He did not need half the nation to support him.
Note:IL SUPPORTO...POCHI MA COESI

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Consider a room filled with 100 people. Anyone could take complete control if only she had five supporters with automatic weapons pointed at the rest. She would remain in power so long as the five gunmen continue to back her.
Note:L ANALOGIA

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grabbed the guns first.
Note:LA CENTRALITÀ DELLO SPEED

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There is no prize for coming in second.
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Pay to Play
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Paying supporters, not good governance or representing the general will, is the essence of ruling. Buying loyalty
Note:CHI COMANDA

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After Doe took over the Liberian government, he greatly increased army salaries.
Note:ESEMPIO

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Allaying supporters’ fears of being abandoned is a key element of coming to power.
Note:LA MOSSA DECISIVA

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Mortality: The Best Opportunity for Power
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Dead leaders cannot deliver rewards to their coalition.
Note:PRIMO...NN FARSI AMMAZZARE....ESIBIRE SICUREZZA

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That’s a good reason to keep terminal illnesses secret
Note:ES

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Although the masses brought down the old regime in hopes of obtaining a more democratic government, Khomeini ensured that real power was retained by a small group of clerics.
Note:UN PICCOLO GRUPPO COESO

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The shah ran a brutal, oppressive government under which thousands disappeared. Imprisonment, torture, and death were commonplace.
Note:CHI SI ERA LIBERATO VOLEVA LA DEMOCRAZIA

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The army was no longer willing to fight to preserve the regime because they knew that the shah was dying.
Note:RUOLO DELLA MALATTIA

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Benigno Aquino Jr. was an outstanding man. At the age of eighteen he was awarded the Philippine Legion of Honor for his journalism during the Korean War.
Note:RISE OF DEMOCRACY NELLE FIIPPINE....UNA STORIA SIMILE

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In a dangerous move, he became an outspoken critic of President Ferdinand Marcos.
Note:L INIZIO DI TUTTO

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On the flight back to Manila he warned journalists that it might all be over in minutes. And it was. He was immediately taken from the plane and assassinated
Note:IL RIENTRO

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In late 1985 Ferdinand Marcos announced snap elections a year earlier than scheduled. Corazon Aquino stepped in as her late husband’s surrogate and ran as the main opposition candidate.
Note:LE FRODI E L INTERVENTO DI REAGAN E DEI CARDINALONI

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Marcos and his family sought sanctuary in the United States. They left the Philippines and settled in Hawaii but, as insiders and many others knew, Marcos would not live long. That, in fact, had been his problem all along.
Note:MA COSA C ERA DIETRO?

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Corazon Aquino had no experience in government. Yet she succeeded where her more accomplished husband had failed. She challenged Marcos at a time when his supporters knew his time was coming to an end.
Note:LA VITTORIA DELL IMBRANATA

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Laurent Kabila, once maligned by Che Guevara as lacking “revolutionary seriousness” and being “too addicted to alcohol and women,” took on the mighty Mobuto Sese Seko of Zaire and won.4 Kabila lacked much in talent, but his timing was excellent. Mobuto was dying of prostate cancer
Note:ALTRO ESEMPIO

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Health concerns for North Korea’s Kim Jong Il and Cuba’s Fidel Castro have engendered similarly intense political speculation.
Note:ALTRI ESEMPI

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Kim Jong Il promoted his youngest son, Kim Jong Un, to a variety of posts, including the rank of four-star general, even though his son has no military experience. Fidel Castro likewise promoted his brother, Raul,
Note:SOCCORRE IL PARENTE

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Inheritance and the Problem of Relatives
Note:Tttttttttttt

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If an incumbent runs out of money he cannot continue to pay his supporters.
Note:NN CI SONO SOLO PROBLEMI DI SALUTE

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Succession became a battle of survival of the fittest to see which son would become the next sultan.
Note:PRESSO GLI OTTOMANI....LA LEGGE DEL FRATRICIDIO....IL PRIMO FRATELLO CHE METTE LE MANI SUL TESORO E PAGA L ESERCITO DIVENTA SULTANO

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The result could often be civil war,
Note:Cccccccccc

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Unsuccessful brothers were typically killed.
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all unsuccessful male heirs were strangled with a silk cord.
Note:MEMET ISTITUZIONALIZZA LA PRATICA

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Mehmet III allegedly killed nineteen brothers, two sons, and fifteen slaves who were pregnant by his own father,
Note:ESEMPIO

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this practice was replaced by the kinder, gentler practice of locking all male relatives in the Fourth Court of the Topkapi Palace—quite
Note:NEL 1600

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it is perhaps no wonder why Shakespeare’s Hamlet or Robert Graves’s Claudius chose to feign madness.
Note:VON PARENTI DEL GENERE

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Would-be autocrats must be prepared to kill all comers—even members of the immediate family.
Note:UNA COSA È CERTA

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Ottomans formalized this while the English merely relied on the tradition of doing in their rivals.
Note:VEDI LA SUCCESSIONE A RICCARDO...GIOVANNI E ARTURO SI FRONTEGGIARONO

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What did John do? Even after assuming the crown he continued to fear Arthur’s quest for power, a quest that grew more intense as the boy aged into his teenage years.
Note:ALL EPOCA ARTHUR ERA UN DODICENNE

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in 1203, John had Arthur taken prisoner and murdered.
Note:INFINE

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the nobles rose up against him, promulgating Magna Carta, twelve years later.
Note:PICCOLO INCONVENIENTE

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Essential supporters have a much greater chance of retaining their privileged position when power passes within a family,
Note:UN VANTAGGIO DELLA SUCCESSIONE

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Naturally, if you’re a young prince who hopes to be king, you’ll have to make sure to outlive your “supporters” first.
Note:I RE GIOVANI

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For instance, the first Roman emperor, Augustus, formally adopted his successor, Tiberius. Mob bosses often do the same. Carlo Gambino nominated “Big” Paul Castellano to succeed him
Note:IL SUCCESSORE NOMINATO X EVITARE FAIDE

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Papal Bull - ying for Power
Note:Ttttttttttttt

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Some of the greatest stories and movies of all time portray how the outcome of whole nations, peoples, and faiths come down to the actions of a single individual.
Note:DA FRODO A SKYWALKER

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Bishops were the arbiters of Christian practice and belief, but not until Damasus I, pope from 366 to 384, was the Bishop of Rome truly elevated above all other Roman Catholic bishops,
Note:IL PAPA NELLA CHIESA PRIMITIVA NN CONTAVA GRANCHÈ

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By the late 300s, the east had a seemingly insurmountable advantage in the long struggle between the eastern and western branches of Christianity. The apostles and, of course, Jesus himself, all came from the east.
Note:DAMASO...UN CASE STUDY INTERESSANTE

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apostles came from the east, but Peter and Paul were martyred in Rome and it was in Rome that they were buried.
Note:L IDEA DI DAMASUS

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Rome, then, must have a superior claim compared to the eastern Sees.
Note:Cccccccccc

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On February 28, 380, Emperor Theodosius declared that everyone must abide by the Christian principles as declared by “the Apostle Peter to the Romans, and now followed by Bishop Damasus and Peter of Alexandria.”
Note:L OPERA DI DAMASUS....PRIVILEGIARE IL CENTRO E NN LA PERIFERIA...CONVERTIRE I NOBILI PARTENDO DALLE LOORO MOGLI...

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his battle for power shifted Christianity away from its Eastern origins and set it on the path to becoming a Western faith.
Note:SVOLTA DI DAMASUS

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what constitutes doing the right thing must be understood from the perspective of a potential supporter; it may have nothing to do with what is best for a community or nation.
Note:RICORDA...È SEMPRE UN AFFARE X POCHI

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Seizing Power from the Bankrupt
Note:Tttttttttttttt

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If a ruler has run out of money with which to pay his supporters,
Note:ANCHE FARE IL GIUSTO PASSO NN SERVE A NIENTE SE...

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Financial crises are an opportune time to strike.
Note:RIVOLUZIONE...QUANDO

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Kerensky’s revolutionaries were able to storm the Winter Palace in February 1917 because the army did not stop them. And the army did not bother to stop them because the czar did not pay them enough.
Note:1917… ALTRO CHE IDEOLOGIA MARXISTA

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he foolishly cut the income from one of his major sources of revenue, the vodka tax,
Note:L ERRORE DELLO ZAR....MOSSA PROIBIZIONISTA

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He had the silly idea that a sober army would prove more effective
Note:PAZZA IDEA

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Nicholas, it seems, thought that a ban on vodka would improve the performance of Russia’s troops in World War I.
Note:Cccccccc

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His mistake was operating a democratic government, which necessitated a large coalition, and implementing an unpopular policy—continuing
Note:KERENTSKY

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The czar fell once there was no one to stop the revolution. Louis XVI suffered much the same fate in the French Revolution.
Note:LA LEZIONE...PAGARE BENE GLI ALLEATI

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Mugabe “succeeds” because he understands that it does not matter what happens to the people provided that he makes sure to pay the army.
Note:L IRRILEVANZA DI UNA POLITICA TERRIBILE

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Mugabe is certainly horrible for what he’s done to the people he rules, but he is a master of the rules to rule by.
Note:IL PIÙ GRANDE STATISTA DEL MONDO?

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Silence Is Golden
Note:Ttttttttttttttt

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The incumbent’s advantage in offering rewards disappears as soon as coalition members come to suspect their long run access to personal benefits will end.
Note:PREMESSA

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Houari Boumediène was able to seize the Algerian presidency from Ahmed Ben Bella in 1965 after Ben Bella foolishly opened his mouth.
Note:L ESEMPIO ILLUSTRATO

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On June 12, 1966, he announced that there would be a politburo meeting a week later and that the purpose of the meeting was to discuss three major issues: (1) Changes in the cabinet; (2) Changes in the army command; (3) The liquidation of the military opposition.
Note:L ERRORE FATALE DI BELLA

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There is never a point in showing your hand before you have to;
Note:Ccccccfffff

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Institutional Change
Note:Tttttttttttttt

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What politicians seek to avoid are any institutional changes that increase the number of people to whom they are beholden.
Note:IN POCHI È MEGLIO

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He sought to end Communist Party members’ access to special stores, privileged access to the best universities, and other benefits not shared by the working people of the Soviet Union. Sure, that was popular with the masses but the masses didn’t have much say in choosing who ran the Soviet Union—Party members did.
Note:L ERRORE DI YELTSIN...DA CUI SI SALVERÁ X UN SOFFIO

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By the late 1980s the Soviet economy had stagnated. This left the recently promoted Soviet leader, Gorbachev, with a serious dilemma. Unless he could somehow resuscitate the economy, he was liable to run out of money. As we have seen, this situation can get leaders into serious trouble. In order to get the economy moving so that there would continue to be enough money, Gorbachev needed to loosen control over the people, freeing their suppressed entrepreneurial potential.
Note:IL CROLLO DEL MURO....LE VERE CAUSE

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he could win over the apparatchiks by promoting greater budgetary autonomy for the Russian Republic within the Soviet structure. They could become richer and more powerful in Russia than they had been in the Soviet Union.
Note:QUELLO CHE CAPI BORIS Y

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Coming to Power in Democracy
Note:Tttttttttttttt

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Democratic Inheritance
Note:Ttttttttttttt

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Democrats, because they rely on a large coalition, cannot lavish great wealth on their supporters personally.
Note:IL PROB DE LEADER DEMOCRATICO

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democrats need to find effective public policies that their supporters like and reward their loyalty
Note:LO SCAMBIO DEMO

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this explains why dynastic rule is common even in democracies.
Note:MA I SONO ANCHE BENI PRIVATI

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31.2 percent of American female legislators (and 8.4 percent of men) had a close relative precede them in their political role.10 Nearly 20 percent of American presidents were close relatives
Note:L BÒ DYNASTIES

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Democracy Is an Arms Race for Good Ideas
Note:Ttttttttttt

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Competition in democracies is cerebral, not physical. Killing foes works for dictators,
Note:CERVELLO

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the corollary is that even good public policy does not buy much loyalty. Everyone consumes policy benefits whether they support the incumbent or not.
Note:COROLLARIO.....LE POLICY SI CONSUMANO X CONQUISTARE IL POTERE

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If a leader cleans up the environment or solves global warming then everyone is a winner,
Note:SE FAI BENE CONTA POCO QUANDO NN HAI IDEE X IL FUTURO

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past deeds don’t buy loyalty.
Note:Cccccccccc

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After six hard years of war, rationing, and sacrifice, these policies had little appeal. Atlee chose to promote the National Health Service and the creation of a welfare state
Note:CME IL GRANDE CHURCHILL VINCITORE DI HITLER XSE LE ELEZIONI

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He won the battle for good ideas.
Note:CccccccccccccÈ IL FUTURO CHE CONTA

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A Last Word on Coming to Power: The Ultimate Fate of Sergeant Doe
Note:Ttttttttttt

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With the end of the cold war, the United States no longer needed Doe’s assistance, and in 1989 the US government cut off his future aid. Rivals Charles Taylor and Prince Johnson, backed by the governments of Burkina Faso and Côte d’Ivoire, saw their opportunity and launched an insurgency.
Note:LA FINE DI DOE

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Prince Johnson captured the president and videotaped his subsequent interrogation. The interrogators repeated the same questions over and over again before Johnson turned to cutting off Doe’s ear and eating it: “Where is the money? What is the bank account number?” Doe didn’t answer.
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To achieve power means recognizing the moment of opportunity, moving fast, and moving decisively to seize the day.
SOMMARIO

martedì 28 maggio 2019

LA POLITICA IN UN FRAME

LA POLITICA IN UN FRAME

Considera una stanza con 100 persone dentro. Chiunque puo’ assumerne il controllo completo se solo ottiene 5 sostenitori disponibili a puntare le loro armi sugli altri. Il controllo dura finché quei 5 adempiono al loro dovere.

L’alleanza si fa dietro compenso: i dittatori pagano con beni privati (moneta sonante), i democratici con beni pubblici (incarichi nelle infrastrutture o nel welfare).

L' ABC

Tanto per ricordare l' ABC: occuparsi di politica non significa occuparsi del bene comune (quello lo fa qualche professore rinchiuso nella sua torre d'avorio). Significa capire come conquistare il potere e conservarlo.

Anche nel paese di Machiavelli è talvolta necessario ripeterlo.

IL PIU’ GRANDE STATISTA DEL MONDO?

IL PIU’ GRANDE STATISTA DEL MONDO?
Probabilmente Robert Mugabe.
Ha devastato il suo paese riuscendo a conservare il potere. Un maestro (sapeva chi pagare).
La sua lezione: la Storia NON siamo noi.
La Storia è un leader i suoi pochi accoliti che compensa a dovere.
AMAZON.COM
A groundbreaking new theory of the real rules of politics: leaders do whatever keeps them in power, regardless of the national interest.As featured on the viral video Rules for Rulers, which has been viewed over 3 million times.Bruce Bueno de Mesquita and Alastair Smith's canonical book on politi...

lunedì 29 maggio 2017

Il male paga

The Dictator's Handbook: Why Bad Behavior is Almost Always Good Politics by Bruce Bueno de Mesquita, Alastair Smith
Forse il potere non ci sembrerà più così terribile una volta comprese le sue leggi…
… Daily we hear of frauds, chicanery, and double-dealing by corporate executives, new lies, thefts, cruelties and even murders perpetrated by government leaders. We cannot help but wonder what flaws of culture, religion, upbringing, or historical circumstance explain the rise of these malevolent despots, greedy Wall Street bankers, and unctuous oil barons…
Crederlo corrotto è la tipica autoconsolazione dei diseredati.
In realtà il potere non è corrotto. Molto più semplicemente ha le sue regole.
Sono i giornali ha privilegiare la “narrazione” rispetto all’approccio analitico. Sono loro ad indurre in errore.
Credete davvero che dei “falliti” possano avere tanto successo senza che dietro di loro non ci sia nulla?…
… How do tyrants hold on to power for so long?… Equally, we may well wonder: Why are Wall Street executives so politically tone-deaf that they dole out billions in bonuses while plunging the global economy into recession? Why is the leadership of a corporation, on whose shoulders so much responsibility rests, decided by so few people? Why are failed CEOs retained and paid handsomely even as their company’s shareholders lose their shirts?…
Il potere ha le sue regole e se proprio vogliamo giudicare gli uomini teniamo conto delle forze che governano le loro azioni.
Siete proprio sicuri che voi non avreste mai potuto essere un Geddafi?…
… We are confident that we would never act like Libya’s Muammar Qaddafi who bombed his own people to keep himself in power. We look at the huge losses suffered under Kenneth Lay’s leadership by Enron’s employees, retirees, and shareholders and think we aren’t like Kenneth Lay…
Solo l’ignorante stupisce di certi comportamenti che a lui paiono estremi
… We’re still surprised by the prevalence of drought-induced food shortages in Africa, 3,500 years after the pharaohs worked out how to store grain. We’re still shocked by the devastation of earthquakes and tsunamis in places like Haiti, Iran, Myanmar, and Sri Lanka, and by the seemingly lesser intensity of such natural disasters in North America and Europe. We’re still troubled by the friendly handshakes and winks exchanged between democratic leaders and the tyrants that they somehow justify empowering…
Il nostro tentativo sarà di dare senso a tutto questo, di spiegare le leggi della politica. Ovvero, il gioco che giocano i potenti. La logica e l’evidenza saranno la nostra guida.
Dipingeremo un quadretto poco piacevole, forniremo una panoramica poco rassicurante, ma tant’è.
***
Tesi: comportarsi male rende bene, in politica.
Una piccola storia di grande avidità in un paesino americano, Bell Town – e parliamo di politica, non di psicologia…
… Robert Rizzo is a former city manager of the small town of Bell (population about 36,600). Bell, a suburb of Los Angeles, is a poor, mostly Hispanic and Latino town. Per capita income may be as low as $10,000 or as high as $25,000—estimates vary—but either way it is way below both the California and national average… Despite its many challenges, Bell consistently outperforms other California communities in keeping violent crime and property crime below average. A cursory glance at Bell’s official website suggests a thriving, happy community brimming over with summer classes, library events, water play, and fun-filled family trips… In 2010, Bell’s then-mayor, Oscar Hernandez (later jailed on corruption charges), said the town had been on the verge of bankruptcy in 1993 when Rizzo (also ultimately charged with corruption) was hired. For fifteen consecutive years of Rizzo’s leadership, up until he stepped down in 2010, the city’s budget had been balanced. Hernandez credits Rizzo with making the town solvent and helping to keep it that way… Behind the idyllic façade, however, lies a story that embodies how politics really works. You see, Robert Rizzo, hired at $72,000 a year in 1993, and in his job for seventeen years before being forced to step down in the summer of 2010, at the end of his tenure was earning a staggering $787,000 per year…. almost exactly the return promised by Bernie Madoff, the master Ponzi schemer… Robert Rizzo was indeed credited with doing a good job for Bell, but was it really that good?… Jerry Brown, promised an investigation to find out if any laws had been violated. The implicit message in his action was clear enough: No one would pay a small town city manager nearly $800,000 a year… The actual story is one of clever (and reprehensible) political maneuvering implicitly sanctioned by Bell’s voters… Cities comparable to Bell pay their council members an average of $4,800 a year. But four of Bell’s five council members received close to $100,000 a year through the simple mechanism of being paid not only their (minimal) base council salaries but also nearly $8,000 per month to sit on city agency boards… How can we possibly explain these disparities… The answers lie in a clever manipulation of election timing… 2005 special election to convert Bell from a “general city” to a “charter city.”… decisions are made in the open daylight in general cities and often in secret, behind closed doors in charter cities… The selling point of the change to charter city was to give Bell greater autonomy from decisions by distant state officials…. special election, associated with no other ballot decisions, attracted fewer than 400 voters… vast discretion over taxing and spending decisions to a tiny group of people… As of this writing all of the principal players in Bell’s scandal have been jailed, but not for their lavish salaries. As reprehensible as these may have been, it seems they were perfectly legal. No, they were jailed for receiving payments for meetings that allegedly never took place… one might describe as a legal technicality…. You may well wonder how a little town like Bell could balance its budget—one of Mr. Rizzo’s significant accomplishments—while paying such high salaries… Remember, the town’s leaders got to choose not only how to spend money but also how much tax to levy. And did they ever tax their constituents…. In plain and simple terms, Bell’s property tax was about 50 percent higher than nearby communities. With such high taxes, the city manager and council certainly could pay big salaries and balance the budget,… In the city, council members are elected, although their election was not contested for many years before 2007…
Morale: se fare il cattivo rende, prima o poi farai il cattivo.
Ogni tentazione non rimane a lungo inviolata. Un biglietto da 100 euro non resta a lungo sul marciapiede.
La prima lezione di Bell Town
… First, politics is about getting and keeping political power. It is not about the general welfare of “We, the people.”…
Seconda lezione:
… Second, political survival is best assured by depending on few people to attain and retain office…
dittatori non sono mai soli: sono appoggiati da un gruppetto allargato di parecchie persone.
governanti democratici non fanno gruppo con i loro elettori: si appoggiano ad una cerchia ristretta di persone.
Ergo: dittatori e governanti democratici si somigliano più di quanto vorremmo.
E’ la famosa “teoria delle élite” di Gaetano Mosca.
Terza lezione…
… Third, when the small group of cronies knows that there is a large pool of people waiting on the sidelines, hoping to replace them in the queue for gorging at the public trough, then the top leadership has great discretion over how revenue is spent and how much to tax….
Altra lezione: gli interessi dominano l’ideologia…
… One important lesson we will learn is that where politics are concerned, ideology, nationality, and culture don’t matter all that much… When addressing politics, we must accustom ourselves to think and speak about the actions and interests of specific, named leaders rather than thinking and talking about fuzzy ideas like the national interest, the common good, and the general welfare… Politics, like all of life, is about individuals…
***
La politica è mossa da leggi ben precise: su questo punto anche grandi pensatori sono andati in confusione… con qualche piccola giustificazione…
… people like Niccolò Machiavelli, Thomas Hobbes, James Madison, and Charles-Louis de Secondat (that is, Montesquieu), not to forget Plato and Aristotle, thought about government mostly in the narrow context of their times….
La confusione di Hobbes
… Hobbes sought the best form of government. His search, however, was blinded by his experience of the English civil war, the rise of Cromwell, and his fear of rule by the masses. Fearing the masses, Hobbes saw monarchy as the natural path to order and good governance. Believing in the necessary benevolence of an absolute leader, the Leviathan, he also concluded that, “no king can be rich, nor glorious, nor secure, whose subjects are either poor, or contemptible, or too weak through want, or dissension, to maintain a war against their enemies.”…
Con Machiavelli si migliora…
… Machiavelli, an unemployed politician/civil servant who hoped to become a hired hand of the Medici family—that is, perhaps the Robert Rizzo of his day—wrote The Prince to demonstrate his value as an adviser… He had, we believe, a better grasp than Hobbes…
Montesquieu fuori strada…
… For Montesquieu, the Enlightenment, the new Cartesian thinking, and the emerging constitutional monarchy of Britain all combined to stimulate his insightful ideas of political checks and balances. Through these checks and balances he hoped to prevent exactly the corruption of public welfare… the option of forming a charter city was motivated, in theory, exactly by a quest for checks and balances…
Altri autori in confusione…
… Jürgen Habermas, Michel Foucault, and John Rawls…
Più realismo e meno moralismo. signori!…
***
Quando pensiamo alla guerra dobbiamo chiederci…
… What are the consequences for leaders and their regimes when a war is lost?…
Non lo facciamo mai, abbiamo il brutto vizio di metterci nei panni dello stato anziché dei suoi governanti. Ma lo stato non esiste! Esistono solo i suoi governanti…
… This question hadn’t been asked because the standard ideas about war and peace were rooted in notions about states, the international system, and balances of power and polarity, and not in leader interests… Even the term “international relations” presumes that the subject is about nations… States don’t have interests. People do… The prime mover of interests in any state (or corporation for that matter) is the person… the self-interested calculations…
Per questo non capiamo niente. Eludiamo le questioni centrali…
… And what, for a leader, is the “best” way to govern? The answer to how best to govern: however is necessary first to come to power, then to stay in power, and to control as much national (or corporate) revenue as possible all along the way….
***
In politica ci sono alcune regole di base: primo, nessun leader governa da solo…
… To understand politics properly, we must modify one assumption in particular: we must stop thinking that leaders can lead unilaterally. No leader is monolithic… stop thinking that North Korea’s Kim Jong Il can do whatever he wants… Adolf Hitler or Joseph Stalin or Genghis Khan…
L’esempio del Re Sole
… Consider France’s Louis XIV (1638–1715). Known as the Sun King, Louis reigned as monarch for over seventy years, presiding over the expansion of France and the creation of the modern political state…. He was certainly one of the preeminent rulers of his or any time. But he didn’t do it alone. The etymology of monarchy may be “rule by one,” but such rule does not, has not, and cannot exist… After the death of his father, Louis XIII (1601–1643), Louis rose to the throne when he was but four years old. During the early years actual power resided in the hands of a regent—his mother. Her inner circle helped themselves to France’s wealth, stripping the cupboard bare. By the time Louis assumed actual control over the government in 1661, at the age of twenty-three, the state over which he reigned was nearly bankrupt….
La lealtà si compra, è vero oggi come ieri…
… When debt exceeds the ability to pay, the problem for a leader is not so much that good public works must be cut back, but rather that the incumbent doesn’t have the resources necessary to purchase political loyalty from key backers. Bad economic times in a democracy mean too little money to fund pork-barrel projects that buy political popularity… He moved quickly to expand the opportunities (and for a few, the actual power) of new aristocrats, called the noblesse de robe. Together with his chancellor, Michel Le Tellier, he acted to create a professional, relatively meretricious army. In a radical departure from the practice observed by just about all of his neighboring monarchs, Louis opened the doors to officer ranks—even at the highest levels—to make room for many more than the traditional old-guard military aristocrats, the noblesse d’épée. In so doing, Louis was converting his army into a more accessible, politically and militarily competitive organization. Meanwhile, Louis had to do something about the old aristocracy. He was deeply aware of their earlier disloyalty as instigators and backers of the antimonarchy Fronde (a mix of revolution and civil war) at the time of his regency. To neutralize the old aristocracy’s potential threat, he attached them—literally—to his court, compelling them to be physically present in Versailles much of the time. This meant that their prospects of income from the crown depended on how well favored they were by the king… Thus he erected a system of “absolute” control whose success depended on the loyalty of the military, the new aristocrats, and on tying the hands of the old aristocrats so that their welfare translated directly into his welfare… Louis’s strategy was to replace the “winning coalition” of essential supporters that he inherited with people he could more readily count on. In place of the old guard he brought up and into the inner circle members of the noblesse de robe and even, in the bureaucracy and especially in the military, some commoners… Like all leaders, Louis forged a symbiotic relationship with his inner circle…
Quindi: nessuno governa da solo. La politica è politica di alleanza, anche quella dei dittatori.
***
Ma chi sceglie un leader?
C’è chi lo sceglie nominalmente
… For leaders, the political landscape can be broken down into three groups of people: the nominal selectorate, the real selectorate, and the winning coalition. The nominal selectorate includes every person who has at least some legal say in choosing their leader….
C’è chi – nei processi di scelta – fa la differenza nella sostanza…
… The second stratum of politics consists of the real selectorate. This is the group that actually chooses the leader…
E c’è poi una ristretta cerchia che lo seleziona materialmente…
… The most important of these groups is the third, the subset of the real selectorate that makes up a winning coalition. These are the people whose support is essential if a leader is to survive in office…
Esempio USA
… In the United States, the voters are the nominal selectorate—interchangeables . As for the real selectorate—influentials—the electors of the electoral college really choose the president (just like the party faithful picked their general secretary back in the USSR), but the electors nowadays are normatively bound to vote the way their state’s voters voted, so they don’t really have much independent clout in practice. In the United States, the nominal selectorate and real selectorate are therefore pretty closely aligned… The winning coalition—essentials—in the United States is the smallest bunch of voters, properly distributed among the states, whose support for a candidate translates into a presidential win in the electoral college…
Esempio Corea del Nord
… Looking elsewhere we see that there can be a vast range in the size of the nominal selectorate, the real selectorate, and the winning coalition. Some places, like North Korea, have a mass nominal selectorate in which everyone gets to vote—it’s a joke, of course—a tiny real selectorate who actually pick their leader, and a winning coalition that surely is no more than maybe a couple of hundred people (if that) and without whom even North Korea’s first leader, Kim Il Sung, could have been reduced to ashes…
Questo vale in politica come nelle multinazionali. Pensa a dove lavori…
… Think about the company you work for. Who is your leader? Who are the essentials whose support he or she must have? What individuals, though not essential to your CEO’s power, are nonetheless influential in the governance of the company?…
***
Una volta introdotti questi tre elettorati, possiamo dire che i governi differiscono per come differiscono questi tre fattori: nessun governo è uguale all’altro, persino se restiamo nello stesso paese…
… Governments do not differ in kind. They differ along the dimensions of their selectorates and winning coalitions… No question, it is tough to break the habit of talking about democracies and dictatorships as if either of these terms is sufficient to convey the differences across regimes, even though no two “democracies” are alike and neither are any two “dictatorships.”… The truth is, no two governments or organizations are exactly alike… Changing the relative size of interchangeables, influentials, and essentials can make a real difference in basic political outcomes…
Esempio della municipalità di San Francisco
… As an example, we can look to the seemingly prosaic election of members of San Francisco’s board of supervisors. San Francisco used to elect its board of supervisors in citywide elections. That meant that the selectorate consisted of the city’s voters, and the essentials were the minimum number needed to elect a member to the board. In 1977 the method changed, and at-large, citywide elections were replaced by district voting… Under the new rules, they were elected by and represented their district… The policy and candidate preferences of San Francisco residents as a whole were little different between 1975 and 1977—nevertheless in 1975 a candidate named Harvey Milk failed in his bid to be elected to the board, but went on to be elected in 1977 (and tragically assassinated not long after). As Time magazine reported later, Harvey Milk was “the first openly gay man elected to any substantial political office in the history of the planet.”2 What changed in Harvey Milk’s favor between 1975 and 1977 was simple enough. In 1975, he needed broad-based support among San Francisco’s influentials to get elected. He got 52,996 votes. This meant he finished seventh in the election of supervisors, with the top five being elected. Milk did not have enough support, and so he lost. In 1977 he only needed support within the neighborhood from which he ran, the Castro, a dominantly gay area. He was, as he well knew, popular within his district. He received 5,925 votes, giving him a plurality of support with 29.42 percent of the vote in district 5, which placed him first in the 5th Supervisory District contest and so he was elected…
***
In democrazia le alleanze sono vaste ed è difficile comprarsele col denaro (bene privato)…
… In a democracy, or any other system where a leader’s critical coalition is excessively large, it becomes too costly to buy loyalty through private rewards. The money has to be spread too thinly…
Si agisce allora sui beni pubblici: la loro realizzazione garantirà rendite diffuse a categorie diffuse di persone, al contempo beneficerà il grande pubblico…
… In a democracy, or any other system where a leader’s critical coalition is excessively large, it becomes too costly to buy loyalty through private rewards. The money has to be spread too thinly… dictators, monarchs, military junta leaders, and most CEOs all rely on a smaller set of essentials. As intimated by Machiavelli, it is more efficient for them to govern by spending a chunk of revenue to buy the loyalty of their coalition through private benefits, even though these benefits come at the expense of the larger taxpaying public or millions of small shareholders. Thus small coalitions encourage stable, corrupt, private-goods-oriented regimes… those who rule based on a large coalition cannot efficiently sustain themselves in power by focusing on private benefits. Their bloc of essential supporters is too large for that. Since they must sustain themselves by emphasizing public goods more than private rewards, they must also keep tax rates low, relatively speaking… But when the coalition of essential backers is small and private goods are an efficient way to stay in power, then the well-being of the broader population falls by the wayside… In this setting leaders want to tax heavily, redistributing wealth by taking as much as they can from the poor interchangeables and the disenfranchised,…
I vantaggi del potere in carica
… Incumbents have a tough job. They need to offer their supporters more than any rival can. While this can be difficult, the logic of politics tells us that incumbents have a huge advantage over rivals, especially when office holders rely on relatively few people…
Esempio dell’ URSS
… This explains why, from the October 1917 Revolution through to Gorbachev’s reforms in the late 1980s, only one Soviet leader, Nikita Khrushchev, was successfully deposed in a coup. All the other Soviet leaders died of old age or infirmity. Khrushchev failed to deliver what he promised to his cronies….
La silurazione dei fedelissimi, alcuni esempi…
… Lest there be doubt that those who share the risks of coming to power often are then thrown aside—or worse—let us reflect on the all-too-typical case of the backers of Fidel Castro’s revolution in Cuba. Of the twenty-one ministers appointed by Castro in January 1959, immediately after the success of his revolution, twelve had resigned or had been ousted by the end of the year. Four more were removed in 1960 as Castro further consolidated his hold on power. These people, once among Fidel’s closest, most intimate backers, ultimately faced the two big exes of politics. For the luckier among them, divorce from Castro came in the form of exile. For others, it meant execution. This includes even Castro’s most famous fellow revolutionary, Che Guevara… In a very real sense Che followed in the shadows of Frank Pais, Camilo Cienfuegos, Huber Matos, and Humberto Sori Marin [all close backers of Castro during the revolution]. Like them, he was viewed by Castro as a ‘competitor’ for power… Political transitions are filled with examples of supporters who help a leader to power only to be replaced… If a small bloc of backers is needed and it can be drawn from a large pool of potential supporters (as in the small coalition needed in places like Zimbabwe, North Korea, or Afghanistan), then the incumbent doesn’t need to spend a huge proportion of the regime’s revenue to buy the coalition’s loyalty…
Regola 1 nella presa del potere: più ristretta è la “cerchia ristretta”, meglio è…
… Rule 1: Keep your winning coalition as small as possible. A small coalition allows a leader to rely on very few people to stay in power. Fewer essentials equals more control and contributes to more discretion over expenditures….
Regola due: più ampia è la base formale, meglio è…
… Rule 2: Keep your nominal selectorate as large as possible. Maintain a large selectorate of interchangeables and you can easily replace any troublemakers in your coalition, influentials and essentials alike. After all, a large selectorate permits a big supply of substitute…
Regola 3: controllare il denaro
… Rule 3: Control the flow of revenue. It’s always better for a ruler to determine who eats than it is to have a larger pie from which the people can feed themselves. The most effective cash flow for leaders is one that makes lots of people poor and redistributes money to keep select people—their supporters—wealthy…
Regola 4: pagare gli alleati
… Rule 4: Pay your key supporters just enough to keep them loyal. Remember, your backers would rather be you than be dependent on you. Your big advantage over them is that you know where the money is and they don’t….
Regola 5: non colpire gli alleati
… Rule 5: Don’t take money out of your supporter’s pockets to make the people’s lives better….
In un regime democratico la valenza di queste regole si presenta indebolita…
… As we’ll see throughout the chapters to follow, a democratic leader does indeed have a tougher time maintaining her position while looting her country and siphoning off funds…
Ma le regole continuano a valere…
… Why, for example, does Congress gerrymander districts? Precisely because of Rule 1: Keep the coalition as small as possible. Why do some political parties favor immigration? Rule 2: Expand the set of interchangeables. Why are there so many battles over the tax code? Rule 3: Take control of the sources of revenue. Why do Democrats spend so much of that tax money on welfare and social programs? Or why on earth do we have earmarks? Rule 4: Reward your essentials at all costs…. Just like autocrats and tyrants, leaders of democratic nations follow these rules because they, like every other leader, want to get power and keep it….
***
In politica la corruzione spesso paga e fare il bene della gente spesso non paga affatto.
Ma sia chiaro: nel momento in cui parliamo di “leggi della politica” il termine corruzione perde ogni valenza morale e si trasforma.
La massima di Acton è vera in questo senso…
… we will see that Lord Acton’s adage, “Power tends to corrupt, absolute power corrupts absolutely,” holds… The causal ties run both ways: power leads to corruption and corruption leads to power…
Chi non è pronto per il gioco della corruzione, non è pronto alla politica…
… anyone reluctant to be a brute will not last long if everyone knows he is unprepared to engage…
O paghi tu o pago io…
… if they don’t pay their backers to do terrible things, they can be pretty confident that those cronies will be bought off…
Gengis
… Genghis Khan (1162–1227) understood this principle. If he came across a town that did not immediately surrender to him, he killed everyone that lived there, and then made sure the next town knew he had done so… They worked out that things would be better for them by giving up, turning their wealth over to him, and accepting that the Mongols would then pass through… True, he doesn’t have the greatest reputation in the West (although he is revered in his homeland of Mongolia), but he most assuredly was a successful leader…
Enrico V…
… It is fair to say that England’s Henry V has a better reputation than Genghis Khan.1 His Saint Crispin’s day speech in Shakespeare’s play, Henry V, is received even by the modern reader with passion and admiration. We sometimes forget that Henry was capable of brutality… Shakespeare had him announce, in a properly brutal leader’s terms, what he would do if the town’s governor did not surrender: If I begin the battery once again, I will not leave the half-achieved Harfleur Till in her ashes she lie buried. The gates of mercy shall be all shut up, And the flesh’d soldier, rough and hard of heart, In liberty of bloody hand shall range With conscience wide as hell, mowing like grass Your fresh-fair virgins and your flowering infants.... What say you? will you yield, and this avoid, Or, guilty in defence, be thus destroy’d? 2 Fortunately for Harfleur, on hearing Henry’s words, the governor surrendered…
Il primo obbiettivo del politico: prendere il potere e conservarlo.
Il politico non è semplicemente egoista, non si accontenta di “ottenere”. Vuole qualcosa di specifico: il potere.
Prima di ringraziare l’elettorato sostanziale bisogna ringraziare chi ci ha selezionato. Prima di ricompensare l’elettorato formale bisogna compensare quello sostanziale. Ci sono delle precedenze da rispettare, e a volte alla fine non resta nulla.
Per ricompensare si trasferiscono beni privati o si istituiscono beni pubblici garantendo privilegi. Le alleanze ristrette prediligono la prima dorma (più maneggevole), le alleanze allargate (tipiche delle democrazie) la seconda.
Saper vedere chi nostri tre elettorati, saper distinguere a che categoria appartengono (nominali, sostanziali, selettori) e saperli compensare: questo consente l’ascesa del politico.