hl 5. Islamic Law

5. Islamic Law
Note:5@@@@@@@@@@@@@Non c é legge di dio ma solo imperfetta interpretazione della stessa.piú una morale che un diritto. Le conseg giuridiche sono secondarieanalogia con la legge costituzionale x capired sahria vs fiqh.. Quattro scuole tutte ortodosse. La fonte primaria si é spostata dal corano all tradizione.. Problemi. Vaghezza. Incoerenza. Per i detti c é anche il prob dell autenticitá.il polilegalismo delle cittá medievali.il garantismo estremo della shaaria.lo stato moderno centralizza il sistema e gli islamisti lo imitano evitando la tradizione decentralizzata e indipendente dalla politica.similitudini con la legge ebraica.il matrimonio islamico

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it is the law of God not of man.

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what traditional Islamic courts enforced was not Shari’a, God’s law, but fiqh, jurisprudence, the imperfect human attempt to deduce from religious sources what human law ought to be.
Note:Fiqh

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four different but mutually orthodox schools of law.
Note:Si spiega il mistero

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more than one reasonable guess.

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An obligatory act
Note:Punito e premiato

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A recommended act
Note:Solo premiato.

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A permissible act
Note:Né punito né premiato.

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An offensive act
Note:Premiato se ti freni

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An unlawful act
Note:Punito se nn ti trattieni e premiati se ti trattieni

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Islamic law is more nearly a system of morality than a system of law, since its rules primarily describe how one ought to act, only secondarily the legal consequences
Note:Una morale

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what is constitutional
Note:Facciamoci la domanda. Per capire la diff tra sahria e fiqh

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what decisions the Supreme Court has made
Note:Risposta x il prof.

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The question for him is not how he and his colleagues will vote or have voted but how he should vote.
Note:Ma mettiamoci nei panni di un giudice

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he has to go back to whatever he sees as the sources

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deducing law.
Note:Il compito del giudice

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the Koran itself and the words and acts of Mohammed
Note:Il punto di partesnza x dedurre

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Over time, the scholars separated into four schools,

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building on the work of their predecessors,

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schools were generally similar but differed in the details

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each regarded the others as orthodox.

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looking at the work of previous generations of scholars.
Note:Una fonte sempre piú preziosa con il tempo.

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end of the process by which law was deduced,
Note:Al punto che... La tradizione come nuova guida.

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it was not always clear what the Koran commanded.
Note:Primo prob per l interprete

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In some cases, such as the rules with regard to wine, later verses were inconsistent with earlier ones.
Note:Secondo problema

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The traditions were at first transmitted orally, only later written down. Each came with its isnad, its pedigree,
Note:Prob amche conla tradiz. Il prob dell autenticitá

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reliability of each hadith depended on the number of independent chains
Note:Regola generale.

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several collections of authenticated hadith were produced by scholars who went through a much larger number, eliminating those they thought insufficiently well supported.
Note:L abilitá nel selezionare

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one more source of information on divine law—consensus.
Note:In addiction

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people would never be all agreed upon an error.
Note:La vcredenza dei profeti.

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Exactly what it meant for all the scholars to be agreed,
Note:Dubbio

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all expressed positive agreement
Note:?

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none expressed disagreement,
Note:?

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The Separation of Law and State
Note:Ttttttttttttttttt

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Law, in theory, was not made by the ruler but deduced by legal scholars.
Note:Common law

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political authority in the Islamic world was fragmented.
Note:Prima dell impero ottomano

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local rulers were frequently foreigners to the populations
Note:Turchi

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What they wanted from the legal scholars was support
Note:Lasciavano la legge nelle mani dei giuristi

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They were even willing to subsidize the scholars by endowing mosques and madrissahs,

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if law professors ran the world,
Note:Immagina

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A mufti was a legal expert who offered advice on legal questions to any who wanted it.
Note:Una figura intermedia

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like the Roman jurisconsult.

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The fatwa might amount to moral advice, an opinion as to what action it was right to take.

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It was not the mufti’s job to find out what had actually happened, only to report what would be the legal implications

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The final actor in the progress from divine revelation to a functioning court system was the qadi, the judge.

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he was appointed and paid
Note:L unico

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In their system, the opinion on the law came first, provided by the mufti, followed by the qadi’s application of the law to the facts as he saw them.
Note:Processo capovolto rispetto a noi. L appwllo ê chiesto x rettificare l accertamento dei fatti

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An Alternative View
Note:Tttttttttt

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Joseph Schact,
Note:Via alteenativa. La scuola xdente

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In his view Muslim law was actually an amalgam of pre-existing Arabic legal rules, administrative regulations created by the first Muslim dynasty,
Note:Glu hadith sono inventati

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both sides to such disputes invented traditions to support their positions.
Note:Quando nascevano dispute.

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The Schools of Law

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Tttttttttttt

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Maliki, Hanbali, Shafi’i, and Hanafi.
Note:Le quattro scuole. Prendono il nome dai fondatori

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disagreed on the details.

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punishment for drinking wine was eighty lashes according to three of the schools, forty according to the fourth
Note:Esempio

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The schools of Hillel and Shammai tolerated each other for several generations,
Note:Similitudine con gli ebrei

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The two major branches of Islam are Sunni and Shia, a division that goes back to a dispute over the succession to the caliphate after the death of the Prophet.
Note:Sunniti e sciiti

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Ali, the Prophet's cousin
Note:Il suo successore per gli sciiti

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Abu Bakr, one of Mohammed's closest companions,
Note:Per i sunniti. Il successore effettivo. Alí fu il terzo successore.

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The split became permanent when Muawiya, nephew of the third caliph and governor of Syria, refused to accept Ali's succession to the caliphate,

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the first Muslim civil war

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the Shia have their own schools and legal rules,

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a medieval Muslim city could have had separate courts for the four Sunni schools, the Shia, and the other tolerated religions.
Note:Sistedma polilegale.

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Non-Muslims had to use Muslim courts for criminal cases but had choice of law for civil matters.

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What happened in a dispute between parties adhering to different legal systems is not entirely clear
Note:Varia nel tempo e nello spazio

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common rule was for the dispute to go to the defendant’s court.

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law was in theory independent of the state,

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Under the Abbasids, the second Islamic dynasty, the police (shurta) began to investigate, try and punish offenders outside of the fiqh courts.
Note:Talvolta la politica irrompeva sulla scena.

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Finally, the ruler was entitled to create administrative regulations to implement fiqh

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In theory all such courts functioned in Siyasa Shari’a, the general spirit of Shari’a,

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the desire of the ruler to maintain control.
Note:Primo motivo x un sistema parallelo

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fiqh had serious limits
Note:Secondo possibile motivo.

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its evidentiary standards were in some contexts too hard to meet
Note:Difetto. L eccessivo garantismo.

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proof required the eyewitness testimony of two adult, competent, male Muslims

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the role of oaths.
Note:Altro elemento problematico

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an oath by one party could replace one of the two required witnesses.

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What Happened to Islamic Law?
Note:Ttttttttttttt

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Wael Hallaq, one of the most prominent of the modern scholars, argues that the Islamic legal system functioned better than most modern systems,
Note:Giustizia x tutti aggratis

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The scholars maintained their independence in part through the existence of waqfs,
Note:Un trust fund che finanzia le svuole

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the rise of the nation state
Note:L origine dela fine

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rulers replaced the traditional system of decentralized law independent of the state with a system of statutory law
Note:Il cambio

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modern “Islamists” who view themselves as wishing to reinstitute Shari’a are proposing something quite different and less desirable,
Note:Islamisti eredi dei modernisti.

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the destruction of the traditional system was due to western colonialism
Note:Tesi di Halkaq.

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the case of the Ottoman Empire.
Note:Problema

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Hallaq blames that change on indirect western pressure,
Note:Gli stati cristoani

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But the shift began much earlier.

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Ottomans gave the Hanafi school of law a legal monopoly

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Sultans proclaimed their own legal rules, kanun,
Note:Sempre nell impero

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Thus fiqh, according to all four schools, forbade loans at interest. Kanun provided for a maximum interest rate.
Note:Esempio

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Under the Ottomans there was a Grand Mufti appointed by the Sultan with ultimate authority over the appointment of qadis
Note:Altra interferenza

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The breakdown of the traditional legal system may, as Hallaq argues, be due to the rise of the nation state, but the connection between that and western imperialism is accident not essence.
Note:Tirando le somme

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The annexation of the waqfs by the Ottoman authorities parallels the earlier confiscation of the lands of the monasteries by Henry VIII.
Note:Un parallelo

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The Content of Fiqh
Note:Ttttttttttt

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Hadd offenses, mostly derived from Koranic rules, have fixed punishments. Ta'zir offenses have punishments set at the discretion of the judge. Jinayat offenses, homicide and bodily harm, have outcomes determined in part by law, in part by decisions made by the victim or his kin,
Note:Le tre offese

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Hadd
Note:Ttttttt

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Unlawful intercourse
Note:1...adulterio

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false accusation of unlawful intercourse
Note:2

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wine drinking
Note:3

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theft
Note:4

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highway robbery
Note:5

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is either execution
Note:Adulteeio

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hundred lashes
Note:Per chi nn é sposato

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Proof of the offense requires either four eyewitnesses

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the pregnancy of a never-married woman can also be taken as sufficient proof.

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if they do not throw the first stones the punishment is not carried out.
Note:4 testimoni

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almost impossible to prove,
Note:Di fatto

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“false” is interpreted as “not proven,”
Note:Rischioso testimoniare

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If, for example, one of the four witnesses turns out to be a minor, the other three can be charged with kadhf.

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The penalty is eighty lashes.

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The husband who cannot prove the charge can protect himself from being charged with kadhf by swearing four times

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The wife can defend herself against the accusation by the same series of oaths.

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punishment is eighty
Note:Bere vino

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testimony of two adult
Note:Prova

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The thief must be a competent adult.

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intentional,

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item of more than a specified minimum value.

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item must be one protected by its owner,

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Stealing perishable food does not count

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amputation of the right hand,

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Since the punishment was Koranic it could not be changed,

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it was unlikely to be applied―the
Note:resa troppo qualificata

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stoning a disobedient son.
Note:Analogia

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Ta'zir
Note:Tttttt

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For ta’zir offenses, the punishment was up to the judge,

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from a private admonishment to death

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Proof is by the testimony of two witnesses, one of whom can be a woman,

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Kadhf is only a hadd offense if committed against a Muslim, but ta’zir can be

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Jinayat
Note:Ttttttttttt

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based on the pre-Islamic rules of Arab blood feud.

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charge is brought by the victim if he is alive or his nearest relative

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Retaliation occurs only at the request of the victim if alive, his nearest kin if the victim is dead, and is to be inflicted by victim or kin.
Note:Prima pena

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the victim or his closest kinsman may demand blood money

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Most schools include as homicide false testimony at trial that results in death.

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Ridda
Note:Ttttttttttt

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ridda, apostasy, the crime of converting away from Islam.
Note:Un crimine nn classificato

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The usual view is that apostasy is a capital offense,

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Some authorities hold that it may be punished without trial,

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the apostate must be given three days to repent
Note:Secondo una scuola

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beaten until they recant.
Note:Se donna

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The Koran sentences the apostate to hell but prescribes no punishment.

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belief alone was not to be punished.
Note:Secondo alcuni

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apostasy from any of the other religions of the book.
Note:Nn solo l apostasia dell islam

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Marriage Law
Note:Ttttttttttt

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marriage is treated as a contract.

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each entitled to own property.
Note:Marito e moglie

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wife’s property includes the dowry

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Pagata dall uomo

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part, sometimes a large part, may be due only after divorce or the death of the husband.
Note:Dissuasores x i divorz

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A wife does not have the right to divorce

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offering to give up part of what he would owe her as a result.
Note:Per aggirare la proibizione del divorzio

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the right of the wife to be divorced if the husband took a second wife.
Note:Contrattato nel matrimonio

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husband obedience and sexual access,
Note:I doveri della donna

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adequate intercourse and support at a level suited to her station,
Note:I doveri dell nuomo

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Taxation
Note:Tttttttttttt

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an annual head tax paid by non-Muslims under Muslim rule,
Note:Jizya

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tax on productive property owned by Muslims.
Note:Zakat

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the payment goes to the high-level religious scholar whose interpretation of law the individual taxpayer has chosen to follow,
Note:Mille x mille

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Jewish and Muslim Law: Similarities
Note:Ttttttttt

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Islamic law permits a man only four wives.
Note:Esempio

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a man should not marry more than four wives,
Note:Maimonide

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the conjugal schedule is every night.
Note:Pee chi nn lavora...le frequenze di maimonide

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for sailors, once in six months;

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for disciples of the wise, once a week,
Note:Lo studio indebolisce

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every four nights,
Note:To fiqH

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In Jewish law a wife who refuses intercourse with her husband is a “rebellious wife.”

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A man who is unwilling to have intercourse with his wife is obligated to divorce her
Note:In entrambi i diritti

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Both systems sometimes allow oaths as part of the legal process.
Note:Altra similitudine

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Jewish law is based on the written Torah and the oral Torah,
Note:Altra similitudine. Le fonti.

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Islamic law is based on the written Koran and the hadith, statements and practices of Mohammed

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During the period when there were two schools of Jewish law, some authorities held that one could choose either but should then follow all of its rulings,
Note:Similitudine con le 4 scuole.musulmane

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The solution chosen by Joseph Caro for the Bet Yosef was to base his position on the view of the majority of the three most eminent authorities.
Note:Se le opinioni dei saggi divergono.

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Working Around God’s Law
Note:Tttttttttttt

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“the reward I wish from the Prince of the Muslims is that he should send instructions to his officials in the city of Medina, commanding that when I am found dead drunk upon the pavement and brought in by the city guard, I be let off from the punishment prescribed for that offense.”
Note:Il premio richiesto dal poeta x il suo bel canto Ma ola olegge divina nn si puõ cambiare.

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Al-Mansur thought a little, then sent instructions to his officials in Medina commanding that if anyone found the poet ibn Harma dead drunk upon the pavement and brought him in for punishment, ibn Harma should receive eighty strokes of the lash as the law commands. But whoever brought him in should receive a hundred.

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L ordine inviato

HL PREFA Engineers of Jihad: The Curious Connection + FACEBOOK

CERCASI INGEGNERI!

E' il grido d'allarme lanciato dai reclutatori di terroristi. Sembra infatti che il profilo cognitivo dei laureati in ingegneria sia particolarmente adatto a svolgere un ruolo nelle file del terrorismo islamista: amore per l'ordine, per la chiarezza, per la purezza; propensione al disgusto, al rigetto dell'ambiguità, della sfumatura; bisogno di una forte chiusura cognitiva per favorire la concentrazione e di una coerenza interiore che si traduca in una lealtà alle proprie idee e a quelle professate dal gruppo di appartenenza.

Non si tratta di mere congetture ma di fatti riscontrati: la presenza di ingegneri tra gli islamisti è sovrabbondante; avvocati, medici, umanisti non possono competere.

Se nella guerra tra le "due culture" uno volesse ancora difendere quella classica contro quella scientifica, questo libro, involontariamente, diventa fondamentale.
#Amazon

Engineers of Jihad: The Curious Connection Between Violent Extremism and Education

AMAZON.IT

Engineers of Jihad: The Curious Connection Between Violent Extremism and Education

Engineers of Jihad: The Curious Connection Between Violent Extremism and Education

Engineers of Jihad: The Curious Connection between Violent Extremism and Education by Diego Gambetta, Steffen Hertog

You have 122 highlighted passages

You have 99 notes

Last annotated on April 29, 2017

PREFACERead more at location 110

Note: PRE@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ Edit

TO EVEN THE MOST CASUAL OBSERVER, KEY MOMENTS IN THE LAST TWO centuries demonstrate the disproportionate impact that the violent actions of a handful of extremists can have in shaping the course of events in the Western world.Read more at location 111

Note: STORIA: L IMPORTANZA DELLA VIOLENZA DI POCHI NEL MUTARE IL CORSO DELLA STORIA Edit

attacks of September 11, 2001,Read more at location 113

Add a note

assassination of Archduke FerdinandRead more at location 114

Add a note

The Spartacists whose revolutionary zeal contributed to the rise of the right in Germany in 1919Read more at location 115

Add a note

Baader-Meinhof GangRead more at location 116

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anarchists who rocked the European monarchies at the turn of the twentiethRead more at location 116

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Sendero Luminoso in PeruRead more at location 117

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FARC in ColombiaRead more at location 117

Add a note

IslamistRead more at location 118

Add a note

Violent extremists may have abruptly changed the course of history, both nationally and internationally, but often not in the way they intended. The outcome of their actions depends more on the response of the establishmentRead more at location 119

Note: SPESSO CONSEGUENZE NN INTEMZIONALI Edit

What kind of people embark on a violent, radical course when their chances of success are low and the fight they pick is so asymmetrical in terms of force?Read more at location 125

Note: CHI DIVENTA TERRORISTA? Edit

The powers under attack, too, strive to impose their narrative on events, and demonizing extremists is an inevitable part of that process.Read more at location 133

Note: ROSPONDERE È DIFFICILE. LA NARRATIVA È DISTORTA Edit

official rhetoric.Read more at location 136

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The truth could be the first victim of conflictRead more at location 139

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In this book we take a different and unusual approach. Our point of departure is a surprising fact: engineers are overrepresented among violent Islamist extremists.Read more at location 146

Note: L ORIGINALE PUNTO DI PARTENZA Edit

Relying on education as our key variable has several advantages. The level of education and, for those who attended university, the discipline of the degree pursued are types of biographic information that are not very difficult to obtain; because they are considered irrelevant for governments’ counterterrorism operations, they are unlikely to be classified or strategically manipulated.Read more at location 149

Note: I VANTAGGI DELL APPROCCIO: NOTIZIE DISPONIBILI Edit

education usually does not change or progress after an individual has gone through the education system, while occupation does.Read more at location 153

Note: MEGLIO L EDUCAZIONE CHE LA OCCUPAZ Edit

they are at least to some extent the result of the subjects’ choice.Read more at location 158

Note: ED LIBERA SCELTA Edit

put together data setsRead more at location 164

Add a note

four classic questionsRead more at location 189

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What are the socioeconomic conditions that explain why people join extremist groups?Read more at location 191

Note: PRIMA Q. CONDIZIONI SOCIOECONOMICHE CHE PRODUCONO IL TERRORISMO Edit

the failure of secular modernization projects, blocked social mobility, economic malaise, Arab defeat in the 1967 war with Israel, the legacy of colonialism and cultural imperialism, and political alienation” (Wiktorowicz 2004b: 3).Read more at location 193

Note: LISTA FATTA DI SOLITO Edit

Poverty is often invoked,Read more at location 195

Note: NO POVERTÁ Edit

In fact, the opposite effect has also been detected: there is evidence of a positive correlation between level of education and militancy both among Islamist and left-wing radicals (Russell and Miller 1977; Krueger and Maleckova 2003; Krueger 2007; Berrebi 2007).Read more at location 197

Note: c VERO IL CONTRARIO. X IS E TERR DI SINISTRA Edit

Can we identify the socioeconomic conditions to which engineers are particularly exposed relative to other graduates that could explain their radicalization?Read more at location 208

Note: LIMITARE L INTERROGATIVO AGLI.ING PUÒ AIUTARE Edit

Do some people more than others have a mind-set susceptible to the lure of extremism?Read more at location 210

Note: SECONDA QUESTIONE: LA MENTALITÀ DEL TERRORISTA Edit

The idea that, given the “right” socioeconomic conditions, anyone can end up an extremist is widespread among social scientists. We are wary of believing that there could be types of individuals whose hardwired traits make them more likely to become extremists.Read more at location 211

Note: PEE MOLTI LA MENTALITÀ NN ESISTE. MA QS È ASSURDO Edit

While we know that violent extremists are more likely to be male and young, no other feature has consistently emerged. No one has been able to construct a profile of the archetypal extremist.Read more at location 217

Note: LA PSICOLOGIA CI DICE POCO Edit

an increasing amount of empirically grounded research in political psychology, which we review in chapter 6, shows that political preferences in general are grounded in personality types and even in genetic dispositions.Read more at location 225

Note: CONSIDERA CHE PREF POLITICHE E PERS SONO LEGAYE Edit

There are theoretical grounds to suggest that certain political and ideological orientations can be either promoted by the discipline one chooses to study or be the reason why certain individuals are attracted to a discipline in the first place.Read more at location 231

Note: SCELTE SCOLASTICHE E ODEOLOGOA POSSONO ESSERE LEGATE Edit

To what extent is the question of who ends up becoming an extremist a matter of “supply”—different types of people choosing particular types of extremism—or a matter of “demand”—groups searching for and selecting suitable recruits?Read more at location 235

Note: TERZA QUESTIONE: QUANTO PESA LA DOMANDA E QUANTO L OFFERTA Edit

This explanation of violent extremists as demand driven seems particularly suited to the case of engineers, who possess technical skills that make them prized recruits among all kinds of extremist groups.Read more at location 243

Note: BOMBE E INGEGNERI Edit

Does ideology matter in determining which types of people join certain groups? The strategic recruitment hypothesis may not work if different types of people are attracted to different types of groups, in which case regardless of how groups select, groups would receive different types of people: “It is plausible but yet to be proven that different types of terrorism disproportionately attract individuals with specific temperaments.Read more at location 247

Note: LA SOVRARAPPRESENTAZIONE IDEOLOGICA INVALIDA L IPOTESI DELLA DOMANDA Edit

2 Relative Deprivation in the Islamic WorldRead more at location 931

Note: 2@@@@@@@@@@@@@ Edit

6 Mind-sets for ExtremistsRead more at location 2961

Note: 6@@@@@@@@@@@@§ Edit

RESEARCHERS WHO HAVE LOOKED FOR PATHOLOGICAL TRAITS IN THE minds of violent extremists have found none, and generally uncovered little that distinguishes extremists from anyone else—“they are just like you and me!”Read more at location 2963

Note: NESSUNA PATO NEI TERRORISTI Edit

Kruglanski and Fishman 2006; Ruby 2002; Silke 1998).Read more at location 2966

Note: c Edit

The systematic differences in the educational composition of different extremist groups we described in chapter 5 is a strong indication that different types of people are attracted to different types of extremism: engineers appear mostly on one side, and social scientists and humanities graduates appear mostly on the other side.Read more at location 2968

Note: ING A DES UMANISTI A SINISTRI Edit

Right-wing and Islamist extremism share many ideological features, while left-wing extremism differs from both.Read more at location 2974

Note: AFFINITÀ COMPOSITIVA: DS E ISLAMISTI Edit

left-wing extremist groups.Read more at location 2976

Note: c Edit

are joined by humanities and social sciences graduates who are conversely absent from Islamist and right-wing extremist groups.Read more at location 2977

Note: c Edit

The political psychology literature, which we examine shortly, offers extensive evidence of the traits associated with conservatism and right-wing authoritarianism. We also have solid evidence on the prevalence of certain personality traits among graduates of different disciplines.Read more at location 2987

Note: COSA ABBIAMO IN MANO: PROFESSIONI /PERS. IDEOLOGIA/PERS Edit

TRAITS FOR TYPES OF EXTREMISTSRead more at location 2995

Note: t Edit

A thorough review of the literature, which focuses mostly on the personality traits underlying right-wing and conservative attitudes, reveals that three traits stand out as the most relevant: one trait, an emotional one, is the proneness to experience disgust; another trait, the most multifaceted of the three, involves a strong “need for cognitive closure”; the third, at once cognitive and emotional, is an urge to impose strict distinctions between in-group and out-group members.Read more at location 3001

Note: DESTRA: DISGUSTO CHIUSURA LEALTÀ Edit

DisgustRead more at location 3006

Note: t Edit

Right-wingers’ desire to keep their social environment pureRead more at location 3007

Add a note

This characteristic appears to underlie conservatism in particular on social issues like abortion or gay rights, both of which relate to notions of morality or purity (Inbar, Pizarro, and Bloom 2008; Inbar et al. 2009; Inbar et al. 2012; Jost and Amodio 2011).3 Nazis were particularly well-known for their rabid homophobia and obsession with cultural purity.Read more at location 3009

Note: ESEMPIO Edit

Conversely, disgust is weak among those with leftist inclinations—perhaps explaining why post-World War II left-wing student activists in Europe and the United States tried to shock the conservative establishment with their use of feces in various protest events (including so-called “shit-ins”).Read more at location 3014

Note: PROMISQUITÀ DELLA SIN Edit

Faisal Shahzad, who planted a bomb in an SUV parked in Times Square in 2010, was very clean and diligent, and left his apartment in immaculate condition:Read more at location 3021

Note: IL CASO DI FS Edit

Hosam Maher Husein Smadi, a young Jordanian national whom the FBI “lured [in 2009] into a plot to blow up the Fountain Place tower in downtown Dallas,” was described by his friends as “obsessively clean; three times a week, he removed the furniture from his bungalow and cleaned the floors.”Read more at location 3025

Note: IL CASO DI HMS Edit

Most striking of all is Mohamed Atta, the 9/11 attack mastermind, who wrote in a sort of will, “an almost hallucinatory document,” instructions on how to treat his body after death: “‘I do not want any women to go to my grave at all during my funeral.’” He also asked “the men [who] would be washing his dead body to avoid unshielded contact with his genitals” (Holmes 2005: 138).Read more at location 3027

Note: MA Edit

Need for ClosureRead more at location 3032

Note: t Edit

“need for cognitive closure”Read more at location 3033

Add a note

It encompasses “intolerance of ambiguity,” a notion introduced in connection with authoritarianism by Else Frenkel-Brunswik, a psychologist who worked with Theodor Adorno on The Authoritarian Personality (1950).Read more at location 3034

Note: INTOLLERANZA X LE AMBIG Edit

the profile of liberals and left-wingers is the very opposite: they are “more open-minded, creative, curious, and novelty seeking” and more likely to tolerate disorder, complexity, and rebellion (Carney et al. 2008: 807–8).Read more at location 3041

Note: A SINISTRA PIÙ CURIOSI Edit

ideological conservatism, right-wing voting, attempts to maintain group norms and traditions, racism, right-wing authoritarianism,9 and “social dominance orientation,” a measure of individuals’ preference for social hierarchy and domination over lower-status groups (Kemmelmeier 1997; Kruglanski and Orehek 2011; Roets and Van Hiel 2006; Van Hiel, Pandelaere and Duriez 2004).Read more at location 3044

Note: CON COSA SI CORRELA LA CHIUAURA COGNITIVA? Edit

Kruglanski and Orehek (2011) show a correlation of high NFC and tough anti-terror positions, while Federico and colleagues (2005) link NFC to support for military action against Iraq.Read more at location 3047

Note: NFC E ANTITERRORISMO RADICALE Edit

Poland and FlandersRead more at location 3048

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(Kossowska and Van Hiel 2003).Read more at location 3049

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(Chirumbolo, Areni, and Sensales 2004).Read more at location 3050

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In-group and Out-group DistinctionRead more at location 3062

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THE THREE TRAITS AMONG GRADUATESRead more at location 3093

Note: t Edit

how these three traits are distributed among graduatesRead more at location 3095

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European Social Survey (ESS):Read more at location 3096

Note: FONTE Edit

data from four waves (2002, 2004, 2006, and 2008),Read more at location 3096

Add a note

Engineers stand out as those most opposed to gay freedom (figure 6.1); just under a quarter of them are opposed, while graduates in medicine, law, and economics hover around 20 percent (which is also the overall graduate average), and all other subjects, including humanities and social and psychological sciences, seem more tolerant, showing opposition at around 15 percent.Read more at location 3110

Note: AVVERSIONE AI GAY FORTE NELLE FACOLTÀ SCIENTIFICHE Edit

five components of NFC: traditionalism (figure 6.2), tolerance of inequality (figure 6.3), preference for order and hierarchy (figure 6.4), threat perception (figure 6.5), and openness to new experiences (figure 6.6).Read more at location 3119

Note: 5 COMPONENTI DELLA CHIUSURA MENTALE Edit

We find that engineers are not particularly traditional (figure 6.2). They are also somewhat in favor of creativity (figure 6.6), but this indicator is generally the least discriminating among academic disciplines. All other results are in the expected direction, showing graduates in engineering scoring at or near the top. While engineers are often “beaten” to the top position by graduates in economics, they are the most consistent, showing higher scores across all indicators.Read more at location 3129

Note: INGEGNERI I PIÙ CHIUSI Edit

engineers find it particularly likely that a terror attack will happen in the next twelve months, indicating a strong threat perception; display a strong preference for authoritarian schooling; and are economically to the right on questions about redistribution and welfare, albeit less so than economics graduates.Read more at location 3147

Note: ALTRI ELEMENTI CHE INDICANO L AUTORDITARISMO DEGLI INGEGNERI Edit

Economics students and even more so law graduates are less rigid on immigration, while engineers seem eager to preserve the integrity of their national community (even if not in the name of “tradition”).Read more at location 3152

Note: INGEGNERI E IMMIGRAZ Edit

One could suspect that our measures of psychological traits drawn from a European population may be relevant for understanding Western-born radicals but not graduates in Muslim countries. Muslims in the developing world might have different reasons for choosing their discipline of study; given strong family bonds and the high prestige of engineering programs, parental pressure, for example, might play a more important role than preferences.Read more at location 3165

Note: OB: GLI ISLAMIXI SCELGONO IN BASE ALLE PREF O ON BASE ALLA FAMIFLIA Edit

however, in Muslim countries medical studies are generally as prestigious (and time-consuming and costly) as engineering. High-achieving students hence should have a reasonably free choice between these two degrees.Read more at location 3171

Note: c Edit

We already know that doctors are more frequent among peaceful Islamists and less overrepresented among the violent variety.Read more at location 3172

Note: ING VS MEDICINA Edit

ENTER WOMENRead more at location 3182

Note: t Edit

In addition to male graduates in the social sciences and humanities, there is another group that manifests an inverse distribution to that of the engineers: women.Read more at location 3184

Note: UN TEST ALTERNATIVO: LE DONNE. SONO IL CONTRAR DEGLI ING Edit

we have been able to assemble for a number of groups show that the left-wing group with the lowest share of women still boasts a higher share than the highest shares of any right-wing or Islamist group (table 6.1Read more at location 3185

Note: ESITO: DONNE A SINISTRA Edit

everywhere in the world engineering is the most male-dominated discipline.19 Conversely, female representation among humanities and social sciences students is much stronger, in line with their stronger representation among leftist groups.Read more at location 3195

Note: DONNE NELL UNIVERSITÀ Edit

Weinberg and Eubank (2011).Read more at location 3200

Note: DONNE TERRORISTE Edit

women have largely been missing from the ranks of neo-fascist, neo-Nazi, and violent racial supremacist groups. And, so far as we are aware, women have rarely participated in the “death squads” that were prevalent in Central and South America during the 1970s. These rightist groups typically stressed the traditional child-bearing role of women and emphasized the manliness and therapeutic benefits of violence.Read more at location 3208

Note: DONNE E FASCISMI Edit

Cunningham 2003; Eager 2008; Henshaw 2013).Read more at location 3216

Add a note

“being male increases the probability of an individual being an extreme right voter by more than 50 percent This finding supports results from existing national studies that found that right-wing extremist parties have consistently attracted a considerably higher number of male voters than female voters” (Arzheimer and Carter 2006: 428).Read more at location 3221

Note: SESSO E IDEOLOGIA Edit

“Women and girls appear to make up about 10% of those leaving Europe, North America and Australia to link up with jihadi groups, including Islamic State.” Their motives, however, differ and seem less bellicose than those of men: “In most cases, women and girls appear to have left home to marry jihadis,Read more at location 3239

Note: DONNE FOREIGN FIGHTER Edit

Note: SPESSO CONTA L AMORE. OGNI DONNA CERCA UN FASCISTA Edit

their presence remains negligibleRead more at location 3247

Add a note

On all other measures that we presented for male graduates, women do indeed score lower than men do and, a fortiori, much lower than engineers: they are less tolerant of inequality, have a weaker preference for order and hierarchy, are less opposed to gay freedom, and more tolerant of immigrants in all other respects.Read more at location 3256

Note: L ABISSO TRA DONNE E ING Edit

ONE MORE TRAIT: “SIMPLISMRead more at location 3265

Note: t Edit

Political scientists Seymour Martin Lipset and Earl Raab first attributed to right-wing extremists what they called simplism: the “unambiguous ascription of single causes and remedies for multifactored phenomena” (1971: 7).Read more at location 3267

Note: UN QUARTO TRATTO: TENDENZA A SEMPLIFIC Edit

It stands to reason that extremists of all stripes, not just right-wingers, in order to do what they do, need a considerable degree of cognitive naïveté concerning how the world works, especially about the causes of the state of affairsRead more at location 3270

Note: INGENUITÀ Edit

New evidence suggests that a feature arguably related to simplism, overconfidence in one’s beliefs, is indeed stronger on the right than on the left, and that Lipset and Raab’s conjecture might be correct.Read more at location 3283

Note: DESTRA OVERCONF Edit

Is simplism present also among Islamist extremists? Psychologist Bernhard Fink and evolutionary biologist Robert Trivers argue that “cognitive simplicity” is particularly powerful among religiously motivated suicide bombers (Fink and Trivers 2014; see also Triandis 2008).Read more at location 3288

Note: L INGENUITÀ DEI KAMIKAZE Edit

The assassins of Egyptian president Anwar Sadat believed that his regime would quickly crumble after his killing, allowing them to establish an Islamic state (Beattie 2000: 276).Read more at location 3290

Note: ES CLASSICO Edit

Is simplism also a feature of engineers? For all their technical superiority engineers can be surprisingly naïve when it comes to political issues. U.S. research has shown that students in the pure sciences have more sophisticated and less closed views of knowledge than do students in engineering (understood as an “applied science”); those in soft, social scientific fields have the most open-ended view of knowledge as uncertain and dependent on their own reasoning ability (Paulsen and Wells 1998; Jehng, Johnson, and Anderson 1993).Read more at location 3299

Note: ING E IGNORANZA POLITICA. PER LORO TUTTO È MECCANISMO Edit

Scientists learn to ask questions, while engineering students, like followers of text-based religions, rely more strongly on answers that have already been given.Read more at location 3306

Note: ISTRUITI A CHIEDERE E ISTRUITI A DOMANDARE Edit

The ordered, hierarchical, and corporatist view of society—akin to a well-maintained machine—that we mentioned in chapter 4 could gel with the engineering mentality, seeking clear answers to closed-end problems.Read more at location 3314

Note: ORDINATI GERARCHICI E CORPORATIVI. LA MENTAL DELL ING Edit

An extreme case illustrating the “arrogance of scientific certitude” is Bekkay Harrach, whom we met in chapter 1, a German Moroccan student of engineering who went to Afghanistan in 2007 to train for jihad, joined Al-Qaida, and died in a bombardment of the Bagram air base in 2010. He had released some videos that can still be viewed on YouTube:31 in one of them he presents, neatly written out on a blackboard, two simple mathematical formulas that produce curves that represent the fight between the West and Al-Qaida, aiming to “prove” that the latter will inevitably prevail.Read more at location 3321

Note: L ARROGANZA DELLA CERTEZZA SCIENTIFICA Edit

TRAITS AND DISCIPLINESRead more at location 3328

Note: t Edit

To test these assumptions, we used ESS data on self-declared political preferences, measured on a 0 to 10 left to right scale recorded by the ESS, broken down by discipline. The distribution is reported in figure 6.8: in line with our expectations, economics, law, and engineering are more to the right than the average of the whole sample while social sciences and humanities graduates are more to the left.Read more at location 3334

Note: STUDI E ODEOLOGIA. ING A DS. CONFERMA Edit

engineers are the least liberal, followed by faculty in business studies, while humanities and social science professors had the most leftistRead more at location 3340

Note: CONC Edit

Women in the ESS data, too, match the expectation and are more to the left by a small but significant margin (their score is 4.9 versus 5.1 for men).Read more at location 3343

Note: DONNE A SIN Edit

are the traits innate, that is, do they make individuals both choose a particular discipline and gravitate toward a particular political behavior?Read more at location 3376

Note: I TRATTI CARATTERIALI SONO INNATI? Edit

There is, however, a growing body of literature, to which we referred at the onset of this chapter (see footnote 1), arguing for and offering some evidence that political attitudes could be inherited (Alford, Funk, and Hibbing 2005; Verhulst, Eaves, and Hatemi 2012). There is also indirect evidence that individuals who already possess a given mind-set are attracted to specific disciplines. Ladd and Lipset, drawing on the large 1969 Carnegie survey, not only document the above-mentioned political biases among U.S. faculty and students; they also show that “un-socialized” students in the first four semesters of study already exhibit these biases (1975: 74–75). In their study, no other variable predicts ideological leanings as powerfully as discipline.Read more at location 3381

Note: EVIDENZA X LE PREFERENZE EREDITATE. Edit

CONCLUSIONSRead more at location 3400

Note: t Edit

ConclusionsRead more at location 3619

Note: CONC@@@@@@@@@@§@ Edit

The evidence we found is ample enough to revive the theory of relative deprivation and frustrated expectations as a fundamental explanation of why people form and join extremist movements.Read more at location 3621

Note: TERRORISMO E FRUSYRAZIONE Edit

Engineers, and to a smaller extent doctors, stand out among them because when economic development ground to a halt in the late 1970s and early 1980s, they fell from the highest perch in terms of expectations and formed or joined Islamist movements that in previous decades had been led by lower-status graduates.Read more at location 3632

Note: ATTESE DELUSE Edit

The sources of frustrated expectations are not rooted in sheer materialism, however.Read more at location 3635

Note: NON FRUSTR MATERIALI Edit

The fuel flows rather from the feeling of being unjustly deprived of a status for which they and their families worked hard and sacrificed, and to which they felt entitled to aspire, and, grander still, from the lack of opportunity to prove one’s worth in shaping the future one’s country—Read more at location 3636

Note: C FRUSTR DI STATUS Edit

Middle East regimes would discover that promoting higher education does not promote social acquiescence.Read more at location 3642

Note: ISTRUZIONE NN SIGNIFICA PACE Edit

The first generation of violent Islamist radicals in the 1970s was replete with highly educated individuals.Read more at location 3644

Note: c Edit

Signs of “proletarization” have been apparent in radical Islamist groups now for a while, as we noted in chapter 1. Still, these motives seem to take effect in a second stage, after groups have been formed and their goals and ideology have taken shape.Read more at location 3648

Note: c Edit

Relative deprivation is not, however, an exhaustive explanation of engineers’ overrepresentation. Engineers continue to be vastly overrepresented among radical Islamists in both the West and South Asia despite not being exposed to the same relative deprivation as their peers in the Middle East.Read more at location 3650

Note: MA C È UNA CAUSA IN PIÙ: LA MENTALITÀ Edit

we found evidence that engineers are more likely to join violent opposition groups than nonviolent ones, to prefer religious groups to secular groups, and to be less likely to defect once they join an Islamist group.Read more at location 3666

Note: EVIDENZA: ING PIÙ VIOLENTI E PIÙ RELIGIOSI Edit

overrepresentation of engineers occurs in vastly different social and economic contexts,Read more at location 3669

Note: VERO OVUNQUE Edit

network connections by themselves do not explain the overrepresentation of engineers: this cannot be due to a hypothetical jihadi engineer-mutant who started the whole process, which then spread through his engineer-dominated network of friends and trusted contacts. Network connections also fail to explain why engineers are less likely, and social scientists and humanities students much more likely, to drop out of radical organizations.Read more at location 3671

Note: IPOTESI RIGETTATA: MOLTA TECH MOLTI ING Edit

Next, the patterns of overrepresentation show the limits of social movement theories that, in order to explain the emergence of rebel movements, invoke “political opportunity structures” and “political entrepreneurs”Read more at location 3674

Note: ALTRA IPOTESI SCARTATA: QUELLA MOVIMENTISTA Edit

But the concepts of social movement theory cannot account for the uneven success of Islamist activism across different categories of people and, by implication, the influence that the membership of groups has on their militant strategies and persistence. As we argued in the preface, they cannot explain why among larger dissatisfied populations certain agents were the first to become radicalizedRead more at location 3679

Note: c Edit

Another theory of extremists’ profile purports that it would be determined by recruiters’ choices, that it would be in other words demand driven.Read more at location 3685

Note: CONFUTATA LA TEORIA DELLA DOMANDA: ING IN TANTO XCHÈ MOLTO RICHIESTI Edit

our evidence suggests that recruiters’ preferences do not account for engineers’ overrep-resentation: in groups in which members are selected by recruiters, engineers are less frequent than they are in groups in which members are self-recruited—aRead more at location 3690

Note: c Edit

Engineers possess not so much a proclivity to extremism as such but to extremism of a certain type. In the case of MENA countries, relative deprivation and ideological propensity worked together: the former selected elite graduates and the latter boosted the share of engineers among them.Read more at location 3711

Note: FRUSTRAZIONE + MENTALITÀ. INGR ESSENiali Edit

interaction between social conditions and personal characteristics,Read more at location 3714

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ideology matters—Read more at location 3717

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different ideologies meet the cognitive and emotional needs of different people.Read more at location 3718

Note: IDEOLOGIA E BISOGNI EMOTIVI Edit