CHAPTER 4 HOW TO MAKE A CULTURAL SPECIES
Note:4@@@@@@@@@@Come nasce una cultura? la simbiosi con la natura.il rapporto tra natura e cultura.da chi imperare cosa imparare e quandodare precedenza al saggio sull istinto e il vissutocome impariamo? non sperimentando. Nn affidandoci al btalento. Piuttosto 1 individuando l autorevole e 2 imitando.come scegliamo il modello. Gli indizi indiretto aggregano pi info.nsuccesso prestigio nstatus.osservared gli osservatordi x dedurre lo statusimparare da chi é come noi. Sesso e eticitái vecchi ne sanno di piû. il mito di mio cuggino.Siamo conformisti. E meno male! Il conformismo come scorciatoia.il suicidio della star.l empatia. Ipotesi 1 serve a manipolare l altro. Ipotesi 2 favorisce l aprendimento culturale.il doppio sistema: imitazione e intuito personale.il bcfr uomo scimmua. Big brain?
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understand why European explorers couldn’t survive as hunter-gatherers while locals—even when stranded alone—could,
Note:Il ns obiettivo
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packages of skills, beliefs, practices, motivations, and organizational forms
Note:Cultura
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smarter than we are.
Note:La cultura
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cultural adaptations, from Inuit clothing to nardoo detoxification,
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food taboos
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religious rituals that galvanize greater prosociality.
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Rather than opposing “cultural” with “evolutionary” or “biological”
Note:La falsa opposizione.
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how natural selection, acting on genes, has shaped our psychology in a manner that generates nongenetic evolutionary processes
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cultural evolution, are then a consequence of genetically evolved psychological adaptations for learning from other people.
Note:Il meccanismo
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“cultural explanations” become but one type of “evolutionary explanation,”
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cultural learning as genetically evolved psychological adaptations.
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cultural learning is approached as a psychological adaptation
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These are questions about who we should learn from, and what we should attend to and infer, as well as when input from cultural learning should overrule our own direct experience or instincts.
Note:Le domande
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our automatic imitative instincts.
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food preferences, mate choice, technological adoptions, and suicide, as well as social motivations related to altruism and fairness.
Note:Ambiti dove opera l apprendimento culturale
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Children saw a demonstrator rewarding himself or herself with M&Ms only after exceeding either a relatively higher score in a bowling game or a relatively lower score. The children copied the rewarding standards of the demonstrator such that the kids exposed to the “high standards” model tended not to eat the M&Ms unless their score exceeded the higher threshold.
Note:Esempio m m
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how should individuals figure out whom to learn from?
Note:Prima xquestione
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Suppose you are a boy living in a hunter-gatherer
Note:Congettura
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How should you go about hunting? You could just start experimenting.
Note:Tirare sassi alle gazzelle
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you could wait for some evolved instincts for hunting
Note:Aspetta e spera
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start looking for people to copy—but not just any people.
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focusing on and learning from the older, most successful, and most prestigious
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age, success, and prestige.
Note:Parametri
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Same-sex cues, for example, reduce the time spent by teenage boys attending to the details of many female-specific activities,
Note:Indizi
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Skill and Success
Note:Tttttttttttt
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an aspiring hunter might watch an older hunter adeptly stalk a giraffe, crouch in a tree’s shadow,
Note:Cue diretti
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Using success cues, you might evaluate a writer on the number of copies that his book sells, and a hunter by the frequency with which he brings home big game.
Note:Cue indiretti. Popolarit e successo
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how many monkey teeth a hunter has on his necklace or at the number of pig mandibles hung outside of his house.
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many participants were merely copying (“mimicking”) the investment allocations made by the top performers in the previous round.
Note:L esperimento con gli studenti
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Left only to their own individual experience, the MBAs ended up very far away from the optimal allocation
Note:Da soli si combina poco
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the whole group made more money,
Note:Liberi di imitare
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The central finding of this experiment, that people are inclined to copy more successful others, has been repeatedly observed in an immense variety of domains,
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undergraduates rely on success-biased learning when real money is on the line
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This tells us something about when individuals will rely on cultural learning over their own direct experience or intuitions.
Note:Un mba dovrebbe conoscere le regole d investimemto
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farmers from around the globe adopt new technologies, practices, and crops from their more successful neighbors.
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these learning mechanisms operate outside conscious awareness
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It’s now clear that infants and young children use cues of competence and reliability, along with familiarity, to figure out from whom to learn.
Note:Bimbi
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by age one,
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what developmental psychologists call “social referencing.”
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they will often look at their mom,
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Quando studiano un nuovo oggetto
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the babies engaged in social referencing, looking at one of the adults, four times more often, and more quickly, when an ambiguous toy was placed in front of them.
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under uncertainty, they used cultural learning.
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when faced with an ambiguous toy, babies altered their behavior based on the adults’ emotional reactions:
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infants tended to reference the stranger more than their moms, probably because mom herself was new to this environment and was thus judged less competent by her baby.
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After observing an adult model acting confused by shoes, placing them on his hands, German infants tended not to copy his unusual way
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Prestige
Note:Tttttttttttt
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By observing whom others watch, listen to, defer to, hang-around, and imitate, learners can more effectively figure out from whom to learn.
Note:Osservsre gli osservatori
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take advantage of the fact that other people also are seeking, and have obtained, insights
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deference in conversation, and vocal mimicry,
Note:Attenzione a certi segnali
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This effect occurs even when the prestige of a person comes from a domain, like golf, that is far removed from the issue
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it is possible to become famous for being famous in the modern world.
Note:In sé
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Self-Similarity: Sex and Ethnicity
Note:Ttttttt
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people also use cues of self-similarity, like sex and ethnicity,
Note:Lui come me
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division of labor between males and females is hundreds of thousands of years old in our species’ lineage.
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we should expect males to preferentially hang around, attend to, and learn from other males
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ethnic-group markers, such as language, dialect, beliefs, and food preferences.
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children learn their sex roles because they copy same-sex models, not vice versa.
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musical tastes, aggression, postures, and object preferences.
Note:Domini interessati
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copycat suicide.
Note:Emulazione
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Young children preferentially acquire both food preferences and the functions of novel objects from those who share their language or dialect.
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children and adults prefer to learn from those who already share some of their beliefs.
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identifying this learning bias as a causal influence is tricky in the real world because teachers have biases too, which may lead them to preferentially assist or reward those who share their sex or ethnic markers.
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for African-American students at a community college, being taught by an African-American instructor reduced class dropout rates by 6 percentage points
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Older Individuals Often Do Know More
Note:Tttttttttt
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Both as an indirect measure of competence or experience, and as a measure of self-similarity, age cues may be important
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young learners will be too inexperienced or ill-equipped to take advantage of the nuances and fine points that distinguish the top hunters. Instead, by focusing on older children, young learners can isolate models
Note:Il delta graduale dell etá
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This creates a smoother and more continuous process
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This is why, for example, younger children are often so desperate to hang around their “big cousins”
Note:Mio cuggino
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Why Care What Others Think? Conformist Transmission
Note:Tttttttt
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Suppose you are in a foreign city, hungry, and trying to pick one of ten possible restaurants on a busy street.
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you are using conformist transmission
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strongly inclined to copy
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learners ought to use what’s called conformist transmission to tackle a variety of learning problems.
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A conformist learner can exploit this situation and jump directly to the blood knot without experience.
Note:Qual é il nodo migliore x pescares?
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wisdom of crowds is built into our psychology.
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Culturally Transmitted Suicide
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Tttttttttttttttt
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when celebrities commit suicide there is a spike in suicide rates
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cultural transmission of suicide is also influenced by self-similarity cues.
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they copy not only the act of suicide itself but also the specific methods used,
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copycat suicides are not tragedies that would have occurred anyway.
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These are extra suicides that otherwise would not have occurred.
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suicide epidemics.
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typical victim was a young male between 15 and 24 (modal age of 18) who still lived with his parents.
Note:Epidemia di suicidi in micronesia
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After a disagreement with his parents or girlfriend,
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these epidemics could be traced to a particular spark, such as the suicide of a 29-year-old prominent son of a wealthy family.
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epidemics were restricted to only two ethnic groups within Micronesia, the Trukese and Marshallese.
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What’s Mentalizing For?
Note:Ttttttttt
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Central to our cultural learning is our ability to make inferences about the goals, preferences, motivations, intentions, beliefs, and strategies in the minds of others.
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these mentalizing abilities begin to develop early
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many evolutionary researchers argue that these cognitive abilities evolved genetically in our lineage so we can better trick, manipulate, and deceive other members
Note:Una seconda funzione dell empatia
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the Machiavellian intelligence hypothesis.
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if Robin can infer Mike’s goals, motivations, or beliefs, then Robin can exploit or manipulate Mike.
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the cultural intelligence hypothesis.
Note:Ipotesi contraposta
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The results are stark: children strongly favor cultural learning over Machiavellian exploitation,
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Of course, this doesn’t mean that mentalizing isn’t also deployed for social strategizing, as it clearly is in chimpanzees.
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Learning to Learn and to Teach
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both our degree of reliance on cultural learning over our own experience or innate intuitions,
Note:Calibrare due forze
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we need to be able to calibrate
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direct experience and the observation of others
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apes reared by humans, sometimes in human families, seem to be better at imitation compared to other apes.
Note:Inciso
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they still pale in comparison to human children
Big brain?
